Interpersonal violence
Interpersonal violence
Definition : Interpersonal violence “can be perpetrated by a person in a position of authority and responsibility (such as a coach, parent, or medical staff), by spectators, or by other athletes. (…) It can take many forms, including sexual violence, psychological violence, physical violence, and neglect.” (Parent & Fortier, 2018, translated).
August 2024 – November 2024
Background: Many normalized coaching behaviors are often abusive yet are seen by coaches and athletes as instrumental in achievement and competition. Objectives : The current study was designed to extend past research and theory by subjectively exploring how and why former intercollegiate athletes identified their head coach as emotionally abusive. Methods : Twenty former intercollegiate student-athletes (Mage = 26.0 years) from nine sports participated in semi-structured interviews ranging from 65 to 189 min (M = 105.8, SD = 58). Interpretive description methodology was used with reflexive thematic analysis to generate a coherent conceptual description of the themes and shared experiences that characterized emotionally abusive coaching. The themes that associated with an athlete labeling a coach as emotionally abusive fall under two aspects of Stirling and Kerr’s 2008 definition: non-contact coach behaviors and the resulting harmful outcomes experienced by the athletes. Results : Non-contact behaviors were ones that diminished performance, neglected holistic development, and were inconsistent. The harmful effects were the negative emotional responses and dehumanization experienced by athletes. Finally, participants felt that a coach’s desire for power and control over athletes explained the coach’s behaviors generally. Conclusion : Based on these results, we put forth the conceptual claim that emotional abuse, and psychological violence more broadly, cannot be defined or identified based solely on the perpetrator’s behaviors. The athlete’s cognitions, perceptions, emotions, and behaviors are critical in determining whether emotional abuse occurred, and these interpretations are shaped by an athlete’s existing relationship with the coach.
Background : Although contemporary researchers suggest that abuse is especially prevalent in sport, athletes’ experiences of coaches’ emotional abuse are not well understood. Objectives : To address this gap, the present study was designed to examine how former intercollegiate student-athletes described experiences of emotional abuse in the coach-athlete relationship. Methods : Twenty former student-athletes were interviewed, and an inductive comparative analysis was utilized to interpret and situate the data. Results : Results were framed in terms of power and were organized into four distinctive categories. Conclusion : Results highlight a critical need for institutions to reflect on current policies and practices regarding the prevention and investigation of athlete abuse.
Objectives : This study aimed to assess participation rates of transgender and gender diverse (trans) people in sport/fitness activities, compare mental health outcomes for trans people participating in sport/fitness with those who do not and explore internal/external barriers and bullying experiences faced by trans people in sport/fitness contexts. Methods : A cross-sectional online survey open to trans people aged ≥16 years living in Australia was conducted between February and April 2023 and it assessed rates of sport/fitness participation, barriers to participation and bullying experiences through multiple-choice questions. Mental health measures comprised the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10) and self-reported history of self-harm and suicidality. Covariate-adjusted binary logistic regression models tested associations between interpersonal factors, sport/fitness variables and mental health outcomes. Results : Of 664 respondents (median age 32 years), around one-third (32.8%) regularly participated in sport/fitness. Common internal barriers to participation included anxiety about others’ reactions (63.9%), body dissatisfaction/dysphoria (56.5%) and fears about feeling accepted/affirmed by others (54.7%). Respondents commonly reported experiencing inadequate bathroom/changing facilities (44.4%), exclusionary rules and regulations surrounding gender (36.7%), and invasive or uncomfortable policies or procedures (23.3%). Over one-third (34.4%) of trans people had experienced gender-based bullying or exclusion. Regular sport/fitness participation was associated with significantly lower K10 scores (mean difference=−4.4, 95% CI−5.8, –2.9, p<0.001) and a 40% reduction in odds of recent thoughts of self-harm and suicide (aOR 0.6, 95% CI 0.5, 0.9, p=0.01; aOR 0.6, 95%CI 0.4, 0.9, p=0.02). Conclusion : Trans people face significant barriers to sport/fitness despite experiencing significant mental health and personal benefits from participation. Affirming and including trans people in sport and fitness should be a key priority for sport and fitness federations, organisations and policy-makers.
Background : The USA Gymnastics sex abuse scandal raised global awareness about child sexual abuse (CSA) in women’s artistic gymnastics. The ensuing media coverage also centre-staged victims’ survivorship stories, a process that for many moved from dissociating, recognising and disclosing CSA to feeling comfort when connecting with survivors and accepting CSA as part of their life history. However, scholarship on what survivorship from CSA in sport entails, and importantly, what it means to athletes, is limited. Methods : In this article, we frame the survival of CSA using Arthur Frank’s socio-narratological conceptualisation of people being able to process the devastating consequences of a life-threatening and/or a life-altering event, and present the survivorship stories of two former gymnasts, Maria and Lucia (pseudonyms). Results : For these two women, survivorship was facilitated by hearing others’ stories of sexual abuse, purposefully facing their CSA experiences and connecting with one another later in life to raise awareness about sexual abuse in sport. Thus, in addition to presenting Maria and Lucia’s stories for the purpose of providing CSA victims with a survivorship narrative, we outline and reflect on the role hearing and telling stories have in CSA survivorship.
Objectives: This study investigates how bullying and banter are conceptualised and rationalised by those in male adolescent community football. Methods : The authors employ a social constructivist, interpretative phenomenological analysis approach using qualitative, semi-structured interviews. These methods explore the meanings behind the perceptions and experiences of male players (N = 8, M age = 15.4) and coaches (N = 4, M age = 39). Results : Evidence demonstrated that intent was not synonymous with bullying and that bullying and banter behaviours are highly ambiguous depending on the shared understanding of learned barriers despite participants concurring with most aspects of the definitions. Moreover, banter and bullying behaviours in community football have been experienced by participants, with acts being rationalised through moral disengagement and hypermasculinity. The research indicates that although bullying and banter are conceptualised similarly to popular definitions, concrete definitions may be limited due to the fluid nature of bullying and banter and the influence of shared social understandings. Additionally, the findings gathered show bullying and banter being experienced and rationalised in male youth community sport through moral disengagement and masculinity. Conclusion : The implications of these findings for safeguarding players and coaches in community football are discussed.
Objectives : Exposure to bullying and high levels of anxiety are important determinants of the quality and duration of athletes’ experiences of success. The aim of this study was to determine which behaviors are most commonly perceived as bullying by para athletes and whether the exposure to bullying or levels of trait anxiety differ between para athletes and non-disabled athletes. Methods : It is a cross-sectional study. Two groups consisting of professional para athletes (n = 104) and non-disabled athletes (n = 129) between the ages of 18–45 affiliated to the national athletics federation were included in the study. The questionnaire included information about demographics and the two scales, the Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised (NAQ-R) and the Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2). Results : Withholding information that could affect performance and spreading rumors (item 1,5) were the most frequently reported bullying behaviors. No statistically significant difference was found between para athletes and non-disabled athletes or between male and female genders in terms of total or any subdimension NAQ-R scores (p > 0.05). SAS-2 total and SAS-2-worry subdimension scores were significantly lower in the para athletes (p = 0.018 and p = 0.020). Total and all SAS-2 subdimension scores were significantly higher in female athletes (p < 0.05). Conclusion : The knowledge about bullying exposure in para-athletes is quite limited. The para-athlete group has fewer opportunities than the non-disabled group in terms of financial opportunities, physical conditions, media coverage and many other aspects. However, in our study, they reported bullying exposure at a similar rate with the non-disabled group. Although there is a similar level of exposure, it is clear that the results will not be similar in the two groups due to the different psychological bases. According to the results of this study, it is thought that stakeholders who have responsibility for the para-athlete group should be further educated.
Objectives : Within this paper, we aim to utilise a creative analytical practice to embody the experience of thriving and show the ways in which the coach-athlete relationship may influence an athlete’s ability to thrive. Methods : By using an evocative autoethnographic approach, we hope to connect the reader to the thoughts, emotions, and feelings of a gymnast. To achieve this, I, the first author, used three main strategies to build the story presented in this study: use of memory, memory writing, and emotional recall. I adopted the role of ‘storyteller’, and the story was constructed through an evocative autoethnography with the aim to show emotional experiences that encourage empathy, social awareness, and reflection within the reader. Results : Four memory fragments depict my own gymnastics experience presented in relation to key moments of my performance and well-being. The story chronicles how the coach-athlete relationship affected my personal experiences of thriving, including initial interactions, navigating feelings of anxiety and panic at competitions, and finishing my university sporting experience. Conclusion : We’d like to invite you, the reader, to live the first author’s story and immerse yourself in her experience of how the coach-athlete relationship impacted her experiences of thriving as a gymnast.
Objectives : Transgender girls’ right to participate in high school sports has been attacked by legislation banning them from doing so. This study uses open-ended survey responses among transgender high school girls to examine reasons that they choose to participate or not participate in sports. Methods: Data come from 294 transgender girls currently in high school who answered one of two open-ended questions about sports participation as part of a larger survey on lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, or questioning (LGBTQ) youth mental health. An inductive approach with exploratory and descriptive codes was used, resulting in a codebook with 14 codes about high school girls’ choices to participate or not participate in sports. Results: Among respondents’ answers about why they participate in sports, six codes were identified: physical health benefits, mental health benefits, fun, social connections, family expectations, and gender affirmation. Among respondents’ answers about why they do not participate in sports, eight codes were identified: not interested in sports, gendered teams or spaces, not athletic, physical or mental health limitations, social discomfort around peer athletes, worsened gender dysphoria, bullying or harassment, and lack of resources or access. These codes were not mutually exclusive and many responses were tagged with multiple codes. Conclusion: This study highlights the need for inclusive sports environments for transgender athletes. Providing LGBTQ cultural competence training for coaches, administrators, and parents may decrease barriers and increase comfort for transgender athletes, allowing them to benefit from the skills and education that sports provide.
Objectives : College athletes are at elevated risk for sexual violence, yet few formally report it and screening for sexual violence is uncommon. This study aimed to evaluate the nature of screening occurring among college athletes and collect athletes’ opinions on how best to screen for sexual violence. Methods : This was a mixed-methods study combining a cross-sectional survey with small group interviews. Intercollegiate and club athletes 18 years and older at a division I institution were recruited to complete an online, anonymous survey. Those who completed the survey were invited to participate in follow-up interviews. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics and qualitative data were analysed inductively using thematic analysis. Results : 165 athletes completed the survey. Only 25% of respondents reported past screening for any type of interpersonal violence, and only 22% reported past screening for sexual abuse and 21% for sexual harassment. 12 student–athletes participated in follow-up interviews. Athletes suggested several best practices including normalising conversation about sexual violence, empowering athletes to maintain a sense of control around disclosure, building trust and providing multiple opportunities for discussion and disclosure. Conclusion : Less than one-quarter of athletes in this study have been screened for sexual violence. Sensitive and effective screening practices should include providing safe environments, initiating the conversation, offering multiple opportunities for disclosure, and ensuring personnel completing screening are knowledgeable on what to do in case of a disclosure. These can inform screening and educational practices to decrease stigma, support those affected and ultimately decrease the incidence of sexual violence victimisation.
Background : The experience of sexual violence (SV) in sport can vary according to contextual factors such as its form, type of perpetrator, and frequency of acts that might impact the risk factors and outcomes of SV. Objectives : This study aims to explore the heterogeneity of SV experiences in sport using latent class analysis and to compare the victimization profiles based on personal and sport characteristics as well as on outcomes. Methods : A sample of 1357 adolescent-athletes practicing an organized sport who reported SV in sport was included in the study. Results : Four profiles of sexual victimization were identified: (a) SV from authority figure (3.5%), (b) sexual harassment from peers (84.5%), (c) low poly-victimized (6.9%), and (d) moderate poly-victimized (5.2%). Overall, the findings suggest that athletes reporting SV are not a homogenous group but do not clearly distinguish in risk factors and outcomes. Conclusion : Results can be used to better target prevention and intervention strategies.
Background : Despite concerted efforts, LGBTQ + inclusivity is not fostered across all sporting contexts. Interpersonal relationships with teammates and coaches are particularly significant when it comes to cultivating positive and inclusive LGBTQ + experiences within sport. Objectives : Using online qualitative data collected from 741 LGBTQ + adults, this study examined how relationships with coaches, teammates and sport-related staff impacted sport experiences and participation. Methods : Participant responses were independently coded using reflexive thematic analysis. Data were used to develop a new visual model to understand different types of relationships LGBTQ + individuals experience in sport and how this impacted their sport experiences. Results : Exclusive sport relationships were characterised by experiences of discrimination and were found to greatly influence how participants viewed sport and physical activity contexts as adults. Inert or neutral sport relationships were maintained through protective self-distancing techniques. Inclusive relationships with coaches and teammates were primarily based on acceptance and associated with viewing physical activity positively. Identity-concealment strategies and athletic ability were identified as factors that impacted LGBTQ + adults’ relationships within sport. Conclusion : Our overall findings demonstrate how discrimination in the form of overt or subtle sexual and gender prejudice can thwart feelings of relatedness among LGBTQ + athletes.es.
Background : Sports officials (e.g., referees) experience multiple role-related stressors, including episodes of verbal, physical, and social media abuse. However, the impact of strategies employed to cope with abuse experiences is unknown. Objectives : The aims of this study were to: (i) explore the prevalence and frequency of abuse experiences over a single season, (ii) determine the impact of abuse and other stressors on sports officials’ mental health, and (iii) understand the mental health impact of strategies utilised by sports officials to cope with abuse experiences. Methods : A total of 303 Gaelic games match officials completed an online survey measuring stressors (including abuse experiences), coping strategies, and mental health outcomes. Correlational and path analyses explored relationships between abuse experiences, coping strategies, distress, and subsequent mental health outcomes. Results : In total, 88.11% of officials reported experiences of verbal abuse, 7.59% physical abuse, and 17.16% social media abuse during the previous season. Greater use of both avoidance-cognitive and approach-oriented coping was associated with higher distress and poorer mental health outcomes following verbal abuse. Moreso, greater use of avoidance-cognitive strategies to cope with verbal abuse from players predicted higher distress which, in turn, predicted higher anxiety, higher depression, and lower mental well-being. For social media abuse, self-blame, planning, and behavioural disengagement were associated with poorer mental health. Conclusion : The findings suggest that sports officials employ maladaptive coping for abuse experiences, negatively impacting on mental health outcomes. Developing alternative strategies, such as mastery-oriented coping, may help sports officials to deal with abuse experiences and better protect their mental health.
Objectives: This study examined the prevalence of non-accidental violence, focusing on experienced harassment and abuse (HA), and mental health among current and retired Swedish competitive cheerleaders. Methods : An online survey was distributed to current and retired athletes in the Swedish cheerleading federation. The survey assessed perceived coach–athlete relationship, sport psychological safety, resilience, mental health, and experienced HA within the cheerleading environment. A total of 284 athletes (men = 5; women = 278; gender not disclosed = 1; current athletes = 211; retired athletes = 73) completed the survey. Results : Psychological abuse was the most frequently reported HA form (current athletes = 21.6%; retired athletes = 53.5%), followed by neglect (current athletes = 5.4%; retired athletes: 26.8%) and physical abuse (current athletes = 3.9%; retired athletes = 12.7%). A high-quality coach–athlete relationship was identified as a protective factor for HA. Additionally, 33.1% and 8.9% of participants displayed scores indicating anxiety and depression caseness, while 63.8% reported a high level of wellbeing. Anxiety/depression scores above clinical cut-off were linked to injury episodes and a high level of wellbeing to a mentally healthy environment. Resilience was found to protect mental health overall. Conclusion : The high occurrence of reported psychological abuse and indications of anxiety/depression related to injury episodes suggest a need of attention towards prevention and athlete protection strategies in cheerleading environments.
Background : Sport environments have the potential to be advantageous to one’s development and well-being; however, they are also plagued with the normalization of excessive pressures and extreme expectations that can enhance athletes’ susceptibility to experiencing harm, especially psychological maltreatment. Objectives : The purpose of this study was to qualitatively explore athletes’ experiences of conforming to the sport ethic and experiences of psychological maltreatment in sport. Semi-structured interviews were completed with thirteen retired, competitive, women athletes. Each interview was transcribed verbatim and analyzed thematically. Results : Findings demonstrate that the sport ethic influences the vulnerability of athletes to experiencing psychological maltreatment and athletes’ experiences of psychological maltreatment influence their conformity to the sport ethic. The desire to please is identified as central to this nexus between conformity and experiences of psychological maltreatment. Conclusion : The paper concludes with applied recommendations for sport psychology practitioners.
Objectives : A paucity of studies assesses the intersection of physical health (injury and illness), mental health and experiences of interpersonal violence (IV, also known as harassment and abuse) in sport. The objectives of this study were to examine the (a) frequency of self-reported physical and mental health problems of elite athletes in the 12 months prior to the survey, (b) differences in physical and mental health between male and female athletes and (c) relationship of athlete health with experiences of IV. Methods : Elite adult athletes from four sports were approached at eight international events to answer an online questionnaire on their physical and mental health, as well as experiences of IV in sport within the past 12 months. Results : A total of 562 athletes completed the questionnaire. Overall, 75% reported at least one physical symptom, most commonly headache and fatigue (n=188; 33.5% each), followed by musculoskeletal symptoms (n=169; 29.4%). 65.1% reported at least one mental health symptom, mostly of anxiety or depression. More female than male athletes reported physical (F:81.9%; M:68.3%; p<0.001) and mental (F:71.9%; M:58.4%; p<0.001) health problems, while addiction problems were more frequent in male athletes (F:1.8%; M:6.4%; p=0.006. 53.0% of the female and 42.3% of the male participants reported having experienced at least one form of IV. Linear regression analysis demonstrated that all forms of IV, except physical IV (all p’s<0.001), were associated with an increasing number of physical and mental health symptoms. In addition, the analysis showed that female athletes had a higher increase in symptoms in response to IV than male athletes. Conclusions : This study demonstrates the relationship of elite athlete physical and mental health with IV. Injury and illness prevention programmes in international sport should include strategies to reduce IV.
Background : Although historically, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer (LGBQ+) athletes who have participated in sport have encountered high levels of homophobia (Wolf-Wendel et al., 2001), both mainstream Western culture (Russell & Fish, 2016) and college sport have shifted toward greater acceptance of diverse sexual orientations than previously reported (Cunningham & Pickett, 2018; Krane, 2016; Mann & Krane, 2018). Some college and university athletics departments have endeavored to be more inclusive by developing or participating in Pride nights (e.g., Columbia University, 2020; Reimer, 2021) or participating in the You Can Play project (youcanplayproject.org). These examples of institutional and team efforts are intended to create environments where LGBQ+ student-athletes feel a sense of belonging on their teams and concurrently can participate in sport as their authentic selves. Despite these promising recent trends, researchers continue to document that sexual prejudice, or “negative attitudes toward an individual because of their sexual orientation” (Herek, 2000, p. 19) persists within sport (Knoester & Allison, 2023; Mullin et al., in press). Experiencing antigay slurs and pejorative language, as well as other forms of discrimination and harassment, has been associated with poor mental health outcomes, such as increased symptoms of anxiety and depression for LGBQ+ youth (Russell & Fish, 2016). Enduring sexual prejudice may increase the likelihood that LGBQ+ athletes will conceal their sexual orientation (Fenwick & Simpson, 2017) and/or leave their team (Elling & Janssens, 2009; Greenspan et al., 2019). Sexual prejudice may also negatively impact the social bonds of a team by isolating LGBQ+ team members and decreasing their sense of belonging (DeFoor et al., 2018). Conversely, inclusive teams may have the opportunity to solidify cohesion by supporting their LGBQ+ members in women’s athletics (Mullin, 2016). However, the association between sexual prejudice and cohesion needs further exploration, specifically in men’s sport. Objectives : Therefore, the purpose of this article was to explore the associations between sexual prejudice, specifically heterosexism, and team cohesion within the realm of men’s collegiate athletics.
Objective : Our aim was to define the priorities for future research in safeguarding athletes from interpersonal violence (IV) in sport through a Delphi consensus study of researchers in the field. Methods : An internet-based three-round Delphi method was used as a multistage facilitation technique to arrive at a group consensus (set at ≥75% agreement). A targeted literature search was conducted to develop a list of potential research priorities that were presented as short statements in the first round. Results : A total of 52 participants (researchers in IV in sport) took part in the first round, 52 completed the second round and 44 completed the third round. Respectively, 47 items, 83 items and 60 items were included in each round. The participants achieved consensus on 11 statements in the first round, seven in the second round and 31 in the third round, for a total of 49 consensus research priorities. The first four priorities that reached consensus (78.8–80.8% agreement) directly following the first Delphi round were scored with high importance (between 6.2 and 6.3 on a scale of 7). Those four priorities included: (1) documenting the experiences of children athletes and minors, (2) studying the disclosure or reporting of violence, (3) developing, evaluating and advising on interventions targeting education and training and (4) documenting the experiences of violence of para athletes. Conclusion : This study defines research priorities for IV in sport that may elucidate further gaps in current policies and practices.
Background : Sexual harassment stems from both sexual feelings and hostility toward the victim. In sports, this problem has been largely overlooked by researchers and scholars, despite its prevalence in society. This phenomenon is allowed to occur due to the socially formed beliefs, myths, and norms that exist, and sports is no exception. Objectives : This study explores the risk factors behind sexual harassment behavior in sports, with a particular emphasis on female football athletes’ perception. The study aims to develop a more comprehensive framework using neo-institutional theory. Methods : A qualitative research approach was adopted, and a snowball sampling method was used to select nine participants who were female athletes. Focus group discussions with ten open-ended questions were carried out, and thematic analysis was performed to analyze the data. Results : The findings revealed that athletes were committed to their field and unveiled some thoughts that emerged as different themes. These themes are the actual risk factors that contribute to sexual harassment, such as organizational climate, low self-esteem, gender stereotype of sports, benevolent sexism, coach power, and hostile sexism factors. The study also identified advanced strategies that could help reduce sexual harassment in sports. The study’s implications are significant for researchers and policymakers alike, and the findings can be used to develop interventions to prevent sexual harassment in sports. Conclusion : However, further research is necessary to understand how sexual harassment negatively affects female athletes’ achievement opportunities and psychological well-being in sports settings in Pakistan.
Background : The professionalisation of sports coaching is approached in different ways depending on the country. In Sweden, social welfare ideals and traditions of volunteering have allowed coaching to be less professionalised. Objectives : The aim of this article is to explore the impact of the professionalisation of sports coaching from the athlete’s perspective. Methods : Interviews with six top-level Swedish players in women’s and men’s team sports were analysed using Bourdieu’s theory of social fields. Results : We found that the players’ experiences with coaching reflect the doxa, power relations and capitals of their specific fields. Professionalisation was found to have multi-facetted effects on players and their careers. The environments of semi-professionalised Swedish clubs appear to benefit youth and holistic player development, however limited resources encourage players to migrate. Top professionalised clubs boost player performance and career development but run the risk of commodification and abuse. Conclusion : In conclusion, sport organisations are advised to keep local practices and athletes’ perspectives in mind when navigating the global push towards the professionalisation of sport.
Objectives : Interpersonal violence (IV) in sport is challenging to define, prevent and remedy due to its subjectivity and complexity. The 2024 International Olympic Committee Consensus on Interpersonal Violence and Safeguarding aimed to synthesise evidence on IV and safeguarding in sport, introduce a new conceptual model of IV in sport and offer more accessible safeguarding guidance to all within the sports ecosystem by merging evidence with insights from Olympic athletes. Methods : A 15-member expert panel performed a scoping review following Joanna Briggs Institute methodologies. A seminal works-driven approach was used to identify relevant grey literature. Four writing groups were established focusing on: definitions/epidemiology, individual/interpersonal determinants, contextual determinants and solutions. Writing groups developed referenced scientific summaries related to their respective topics, which were discussed by all members at the consensus meeting. Recommendations were then developed by each group, presented as voting statements and circulated for confidential voting following a Delphi protocol with ≥80% agreement defined a priori as reaching consensus. Results : Of 48 voting statements, 21 reached consensus during first-round voting. Second-round and third-round voting saw 22 statements reach consensus, 5 statements get discontinued and 2 statements receive minority dissension after failing to reach agreement. A total of 43 statements reached consensus, presented as overarching (n=5) and topical (n=33) consensus recommendations, and actionable consensus guidelines (n=5). Conclusion : This evidence review and consensus process elucidated the characterisation and complexity of IV and safeguarding in sport and demonstrates that a whole-of-system approach is needed to fully comprehend and prevent IV. Sport settings that emphasise mutual care, are athlete centred, promote healthy relationships, embed trauma- and violence-informed care principles, integrate diverse perspectives and measure IV prevention and response effectiveness will exemplify safe sport. A shared responsibility between all within the sports ecosystem is required to advance effective safeguarding through future research, policy and practice.
Background : Interpersonal violence in sport has serious consequences for athletes, sports organisations and society at large. Despite recent advances in safeguarding sport participants from interpersonal violence, empirical evidence regarding its prevalence and risk factors across different sports remains scarce. Objectives : In this study, we investigated differences in the prevalence of interpersonal violence among a convenience sample of 9989 adults from six European countries who participated in organised sport before age 18. Methods : Utilising binary logistic regression analyses and CHAID regression tree analyses, we examined variations in reported experiences of neglect, psychological, physical, non-contact sexual and contact sexual forms of interpersonal violence based on gender and three sport classifications: type of sport (individual vs. team), sports attire (non-revealing vs. body-fitting/revealing) and weight-sensitivity (less weight-sensitive vs. weight-sensitive sports). Results : Men participating in team sports reported significantly higher levels of victimisation across all types of interpersonal violence. Women in sports with non-revealing attire and men in less weight-sensitive sports also reported higher prevalence rates. Conclusion : The study underscores the need for a nuanced understanding of interpersonal violence characteristics and dynamics across different sports. Insights into the factors influencing victimisation enable tailored prevention and response strategies to be developed to better address the needs of athletes and sport organisations.
‘First, do no harm’
It was Hippocrates who stated ‘First, do no harm’, and we believe the sentiment of this medical principle is one that every researcher should embody when conducting research on interpersonal violence (IV) in sport. Conducting such research presents unique considerations for researchers, particularly in relation to supporting participant and researcher well-being. Similarly, approaching this sensitive topic with clear definitions of IV in sport and an understanding of trauma- and violence-informed care (TVIC) is paramount to the protection and care of everyone involved in the research.
Background: Coaches’ role in athletes’ eating pathology has been largely understood according to athletes’ accounts of the coaching behaviors and practices that harmed them. Objectives : Uniquely, this study engaged coaches as research participants to more fully inform future intervention efforts. Methods : Using a multiparadigm approach, this study explored how coaches’ understood, constructed, and communicated sport-related body ideals with their female athletes through specific coaching behaviors and practices along with systems of influence and interaction that informed them. Ten coaches (Mage= 35.6) of female aesthetic sport athletes were interviewed. Data were analysed via interpretive description. Results : Results indicated coaches’ negative experiences as athletes themselves informed their intention to prevent harm with athletes they coached. Coaches nonetheless emphasized weight, shape, size, and appearance ideals steeped in sport tradition. Dissonance was salient between wanting to prevent harm using strategic approaches to body-related communication, while also reinforcing body ideals believed to promote high performance. Yet, neither athletes’ performance goals nor prevention of harm were attained. Influences across coaches’ ecosystems explained their behaviors and practices. A novel framework is proposed to describe five intersectional body ideal orientations embodied by the coaches, ranging from body ideal conformity to body diversity advocacy. This framework can inform coach-centered, systems-based education and research.
Background: Inequalities related to racial identity are consistently reported across social institutions, not least education, and sport. These inequalities consistently challenge ‘post-race’ narratives that rationalise racism down to individual prejudices and poor decision-making. Objectives : This paper presents part of the findings from a wider a twelve-month research project commissioned by British University and Colleges Sport (BUCS) to explore race equality. This wider research privileged the voices of non-White students and staff in an exploration of race and equality in British UK university sport. ‘Non-white’ was chosen as a race identifier to focus on Whiteness, the normalised, raceless power that reproduces itself both knowingly and unknowingly, to ensure racial ‘others’ remain subordinate. This paper presents the findings of the student voices. Methods : In this study a research team of academic and student researchers explored the experiences of 38 students across five universities. Generating case studies from each university, the data was analysed from an Intersectional and Critical Race Theory perspective. Two core themes relating to negotiating Whiteness were developed from the data analysis which reflected experiences of university sport as predominantly White spaces; ‘Play by the Rules’ and ‘Keep You Guessing’. Results : Racial abuse was subtle, camouflaged in comments and actions that happened momentarily and hence were implausible to capture and evidence. For incidents to be addressed, evidence had to meet a ‘beyond doubt’ standard. Students were required to consciously negotiate racial bias and abuse to ensure they did not provide a justification for abuse. Navigating racialisation and stereotypes, plus White denial, was additional emotional labour for students. This mechanism of silencing the victim served to normalise sracism for both the abused and perpetrator. The conclusion explores potential ways of disrupting these mechanisms of Whiteness in placing students’ welfare at the heart of university sport.
Background: Youth sport competitions are often emotionally charged events, with children, parents, coaches, and officials reporting emotions ranging from anxiety and stress through to enjoyment because of their involvement. One of the sources for the negative emotions and experiences associated with youth sport is the behaviors displayed by spectators on the sidelines. Typically, in youth sport events, these spectators are the parents of the children involved in the competition. Recognizing the detrimental consequences that arise for children when parents are inappropriately or negatively involved on the sidelines, sport psychology researchers and practitioners have increasingly targeted interventions at improving parents’ involvement in competitions. Although such interventions are valuable and important for improving children’s youth sport experiences, their focus is typically exclusively upon the interactions and relationships between parents and their children. However, negative behaviors from parents on the sidelines can also impact others in the environment, particularly sports officials who report abuse and aggression from the sidelines as one of the primary reasons for leaving their roles. As officiating numbers decline, sporting organizations are considering how to best tackle these attrition rates and one area that may be worthy of consideration is the interaction between parents and officials. To-date, limited consideration has been given to the bi-directional interactions between parents and officials or to steps that could be taken to improve interactions. Objectives : To this end, the purpose of this commentary is to increase awareness, initiate conversations, stimulate research, and enhance applied practice targeting the interactions between officials and parents in youth sport.
April 2024 – July 2024
Background: Harassment and abuse represent a pervasive and critical problem in sport with far-reaching consequences. Survivors’ testimonials underscore the profound and enduring impact of these experiences at individual, interpersonal, organizational and community level. Many of their stories reveal painful inaction from responsible adults in the sport organization, aggravating the harm. Other contributing factors to the harm inflicted include a culture of silence, lack of knowledge and understanding of what constitutes abuse, unawareness of reporting and supporting mechanisms, and fear of potential consequences. While effective bystander interventions have been developed outside the sport context, particularly targeting students in higher education, such initiatives have yet to be extensively adapted and assessed within the sport context. Methods: To address this gap, the Safe Sport Allies Erasmus+ collaborative partnership relied on the intervention mapping approach as a guiding framework to systematically develop a bystander training program (i.e., Safe Sport Allies) to train youth sport participants and youth sport coaches to act as effective bystanders. The current paper describes the comprehensive development process and provides an overview of implementation and evaluation possibilities. Results: Throughout the paper, it is explained how each step of the Intervention Mapping approach shaped the Safe Sport Allies bystander training program. The program development, and the developed plans for implementation and evaluation are presented, shedding light on challenges encountered. Conclusion: The bystander training program developed in this paper and the implementation and evaluation plans can serve as an outline to build future interventions within this critical domain of safeguarding in sport.
Objectives: The purpose of this research was to explore the views and experiences of international volunteer netball officials about their well-being and its contributing factors. Methods: A qualitative methodology, involving semi-structured interviews, was used. Fourteen participants (10 females and 4 males) occupying different official and official coach roles at the highest qualification tier were interviewed from across all five global netball regions. A thematic analysis was used to inductively code interviews to investigate well-being perspectives and influencing factors. Results: Five main themes were found to most affect netball officials’ well-being: (i) structured support: uneven or absent; (ii) juggling and prioritising; (iii) feedback: private praise, public criticism and feeling under-valued; (iv) the mentally prepared official; and (v) being a successful “brand”. General findings showed a perceived stigma around revealing well-being issues, the need for further organisational resources and support and unfairness that might contribute to the well-being of officials in high-performance sport. Conclusion: Five main themes were found to most affect netball officials’ well-being: (i) structured support: uneven or absent; (ii) juggling and prioritising; (iii) feedback: private praise, public criticism and feeling under-valued; (iv) the mentally prepared official; and (v) being a successful “brand”. General findings showed a perceived stigma around revealing well-being issues, the need for further organisational resources and support and unfairness that might contribute to the well-being of officials in high-performance sport. The research provides new insights that contribute to the current lack of knowledge about well-being in volunteer sport official populations and uniquely studies this in a high-performance, international sport setting.
Background: Sport officials are tasked with applying rules, maintaining fairness, and ensuring athlete safety. However, sport officials experience anxiety, burnout, and non-accidental violence, with the incidence of these events increasing worldwide. This has led to rising attrition rates among sport officials, with many sport organizations concerned for their operational capacity. The effects of anxiety, burnout, and non-accidental violence might contribute to or be indicative of sport officials’ negative mental health outcomes. To develop a clear understanding of how sport officials’ mental health is affected by their occupation, it is necessary to identify the mental health outcomes and predictors they experience, and to what extent. Objectives: The purpose of this scoping review was to identify and examine the empirical research and policy documents surrounding sport officials’ mental health. Methods: One thousand, two hundred six articles were identified across four databases: PubMed, Web of Science, SportDiscus, and PsycINFO. Next, a policy search was conducted on the respective international governing body websites from English-speaking countries for the 60 included sports. Following screening, 18 studies and one policy document met the inclusion criteria for exploring sport officials’ mental health. Results: Participants (N = 7,941) in the studies were mainly European male soccer and basketball referees. Most studies utilized quantitative inquiry (n = 15) rather than qualitative methods (n = 2) or framework development (n = 1). The research demonstrated that sport officials frequently experienced negative mental health outcomes and predictors including anxiety, depression, burnout, lower mental health literacy, and high levels of stigmatization towards mental health. Conclusion: These outcomes were influenced by gender/sex, age, and experience. There is a need to explore personal and environmental (including occupational) factors that cause or contribute to sport officials’ mental health symptoms and disorders.
Objectives: This study assessed the prevalence of interpersonal violence (IV) experienced by elite U.S. athletes. Methods: Athletes were surveyed about experiences of emotional, physical, sexual violence, and deprivation of food or water, as well as questions about mental health indices, identity characteristics, and who perpetrated the harm. Results: Of the total sample, 57.8% reported experiencing some form of IV in sport. Most athletes who experienced IV experienced multiple forms with a large overlap between emotional abuse and other forms of violence. A significant relationship was found between reporting any form of IV and having been diagnosed with one or more psychiatric disorders – particularly anxiety, depression and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. IV was also significantly associated with self-reported eating disorders. A particularly strong association was found between reporting being deprived of food in sport and reporting an eating disorder. Conclusion: This study reveals a critical need for more research focused on the traumatic effects of IV in sport. The potential for detrimental effects on athletes’ mental health also underscores the need for improvements in the prevention and early detection of IV in sport.
Objectives: Child abuse in sports is a significant threat to the well-being of young athletes. The aim of this study was to create in-depth knowledge of children’s perspectives and relational situations regarding the manifestation and effects of emotional abuse towards athletes in children’s sports. Methods: Based on interviews with 15 children aged 12–18 and five coaches, five themes of emotionally abusive interactions were identified: (a) scolding by coaches; (b) negative criticism from coaches and children; (c) expression of aggression and disappointment by coaches; (d) teasing and joking by children; and (e) denial of attention and support from coaches. Results: These interactions lead to emotionally harmful effects for some of the children, which were not always recognized by coaches and were sometimes downplayed. The findings have implications for identifying situations and behaviours that may constitute emotional abuse in children’s sports, paving the way for proactive measures aimed at preventing emotional abuse.
Background: To address the societal harms of violence, many violence prevention interventions have been developed, tested, and implemented in the general population. These have been reported in systematic reviews and meta-analyses, which have typically focused on one type of intervention or outcome. Objectives: We aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of the current evidence regarding the effectiveness of different psychosocial interventions in reducing all forms of violence toward others. Methods: We have conducted an umbrella review of previous meta-analyses using standard approaches and converted findings on effectiveness into odds ratios. We tested for the underlying quality of the meta-analytic evidence by examining heterogeneity, excess statistical significance, prediction intervals, and small study effects. We identified 16 meta-analyses, including nine investigating psychosocial interventions, and five legislative and policy changes. Results: Most meta-analyses reported positive effects of tested interventions. The strongest effects were found for sports-based initiatives, and the weakest for general population programs aimed at early childhood, youth development, and reducing sexual assault perpetration by men. Legislative changes had varying effectiveness. Conclusion: We conclude that simple, scalable, and cost-efficient programs, such as sport-based initiatives, have the clearest empirical support as population-based approaches to violence prevention.
Background: In 2017, the U.S. Center for SafeSport launched the first public disciplinary sports registry listing individuals accused of engaging in harmful behavior against child and adult athletes. Methods: Our study reviews information from 1,161 individuals on SafeSport’s sports registry. Results: Of the individuals on the sports registry, 22% were concurrently listed on the national registry for sexual offenses. Relative to individuals listed only on the sports registry, those on both registries were 4.5 and 1.4 times more likely to have sexual misconduct allegations and allegations involving a child, respectively. Of those on both registries, 31% were on the national registry approximately seven years before appearing on the sports registry. We discuss whether and how public registries represent effective strategies for crime prevention.
Background: Violence against women in sport is pervasive. Prevalence rates of interpersonal violence range from 26% to 74% across psychological, physical, and sexual violence. Methods: This review synthesizes adult women’s experiences of gender-based interpersonal violence in sport. A systematic review of qualitative studies was conducted. Five databases were searched, including CINAHL, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, and Sociological Abstracts. In total, 1,617 records were retrieved and screened. Twenty-five records representing 24 studies were eligible for inclusion. Following a meta-ethnographic approach, both authors synthesized first- (participants) and second-(researcher) order constructs to create a new interpretation (third-order construct) beyond the individual studies reviewed. Results: A feminist socio-ecological lens was applied. Five themes were constructed: women’s safety work, the normalization of abusive behaviors in the sports context, sport family violence, organizational impotence and hostility, and women’s status in a patriarchal system. Women’s experiences of abuse are mapped within and across the individual, relational, organizational, and cultural levels of the socio-ecological model, with (lack of) power being a central factor within each level as well as flowing between the levels. A fifth socio-ecological level was developed pertaining to the unique context of sport—that of the sport family. This sits between the relational and organizational levels of the model and covers both intense familial relationships and patriarchal familial organizational structures in sport that facilitate and silence the abuse. Conclusion: Sporting bodies must co-design interventions encompassing all socio-ecological levels to address gender-based violence in sport.
Background: Recent events in football, such as the all-female officiating team of Stéphanie Frappart, Neuza Back and Karen Díaz at the 2022 men’s World Cup, and the coverage of England’s Lionesses in UEFA Women’s Euro, have raised the profile of women in football. Despite this, literature has demonstrated the difficulties faced by women who officiate football. Experiences include being subject to sexism and abuse, and belittling language from players, coaches and parents of young players. Methods: This research presents experiences from seven women who referee men’s football in the UK. Participants referee at varying levels, from grassroots to semi-professional football. Participants chose to be part of observation and interviews or complete a qualitative questionnaire with the potential for follow-up questions. A number of Foucault’s ideas were then used to analyse and explain data. Results: Findings demonstrate experiences of sexist language and abuse, sometimes related to traditional gender roles or incompetence of women referees, and sometimes represented as extreme and threatening behaviour. Additionally, some women in this study expressed the pressure of representing all women football officials when they were completing the qualification and later when refereeing. Despite these obstacles and the frequent ‘othering’ of women referees within the football environment, their persistent involvement and occasional overt challenges to remarks or actions demonstrated their resistance to dominant discourses and the normalising judgements, showcasing the ability and determination of women officials. Conclusion: Overall, more support, including mental health support, needs to be available for women who referee football at all levels. Harsher punishments should be administered for those that harass or threaten women, and clear and effective structures should be in place to address women’s experiences of harassment, ensuring that women feel confident in making complaints and are assured by the resulting actions taken.
Introduction: Les données actuelles concernant la violence interpersonnelle dans le sport ne rendent pas toujours compte de la sévérité des actes rapportés. Objectif: La présente étude visait à dresser un portrait précis des expériences de violence interpersonnelle vécues par les athlètes suisses francophones et identifier les potentiels facteurs de risque tels que le genre, le type de sport et le niveau de performance. Méthodes: Au total, 287 répondant.e.s ayant pratiqué un sport organisé avant l’âge de 18 ans ont rempli une version française du questionnaire Violence Interpersonnelle en Sport. Résultats: Au total, 87,5 % des répondant.e.s ont rapporté des violences psychologiques (15 % des violences psychologiques sévèrestellesqu’être souvent critiqué.e à propos de son apparence), 37,7 % des violences physiques (26 % des violences sévères comme se faire frapper au moins une fois) et 32,8 % des violences sexuelles (7 % des violences sévèrestelles qu’être embrassé.e contre sa volonté). La majorité des auteur.e.s de violences psychologiques et sexuelles étaient les coéquipier.e.s (65 %). De plus, les athlètes féminines semblaient plus susceptibles de subir des violences psychologiques et sexuelles, tandis que les athlètes masculins étaient plus susceptibles de subir des violences physiques. Enfin, la pratique d’un sport d’équipe semblait augmenter le risque de subir des violences psychologiques et physiques. Conclusion: Dans l’optique d’un encadrement strict de la pratique sportive visantla protection des participants, les discussions sur la violence liée au sport et sur les moyens de la prévenir devraient être généralisées afin que l’ensemble des acteurs prennent conscience de l’ampleur de ce problème.
Objectives: This study aimed to further understand psychological abuse in sports and contribute to the development of elite sports and athletes’ persistent performance by identifying the causal effects of psychological abuse on elite athletes’ exercise stress, job satisfaction, intention to quit exercise, and quality of life (QOL). Methods: Data were collected from 363 elite South Korean male athletes (ages ≥ 20 years) from August to September 2023. The independent variable for comparative analysis was the presence or absence of psychological abuse in elite male athletes by coaches. The participants were divided into two groups: a non-abuse-experienced group (Group 1) and an abuse-experienced group (Group 2). Participants’ demographic and athletic background information (e.g., career and sport) were also collected. Results: This study showed that the three factors (exercise stress, intention to quit exercise, and QOL) were higher in Group 2 than in Group 1. Conclusion: These findings provide a meaningful analysis of the impact of psychological abuse on the mental health, persistence, and overall QOL of elite male athletes that can be used to develop countermeasures and policies against psychological abuse that threatens the mental health of elite athletes.
As demonstrated in the social media posts of netball athletes Stacey Francis-Bayman and Jo Harten, online abuse of athletes is shockingly violent and unfiltered, and radiates beyond those who experience it directly to those who witness it (figure 1). There are benefits associated with time spent online such as the opportunity for self-presentation and representation, providing a platform for advocacy and amplification of voice on wider social issues, all of which have the potential to support athlete welfare.1 However, it is now recognised that online environments can be unfriendly, combative and confrontational, and therefore, provide the optimal climate for harassment and abuse.2 As a mechanism for enabling abuse, online environments augment harm(s) that can occur in physical spaces and have created new forms of violence unique to these spaces. Currently, the literature in the sporting domain concerning abuse in online environments is sparse and has focused primarily on abuse targeting athletes via social networking sites.
Objectives: This research reports findings from a study to explore the efficacy of a video-based training with college students to determine the extent to which the training shifted student perceptions of hazing, increased willingness and ability to intervene in situations where hazing is occurring, and altered student perceptions of hazing social norms. Methods: The study included two experimental groups and a control group at each of the three data-gathering sessions at three U.S. universities. Each of the universities belonged to the Hazing Prevention Consortium and had demonstrated a willingness to prevent hazing on their campuses. The 17-minute hazing prevention documentary We Don’t Haze, developed using a bystander intervention framework, was administered in two experimental conditions: video-only and video plus facilitated discussion. Participants (n = 318) were members of a leadership development program, resident advisors, and club sport athletes and were randomly assigned to one of the two treatment groups or the control group. Results: Students who viewed the video-based training and students who viewed the video and engaged in a follow-up facilitated discussion significantly shifted their perceptions of hazing and indicated an increased willingness and ability to intervene and help others who are experiencing or have experienced hazing, compared to students who viewed a general leadership video. The results of this study indicate that the tested hazing prevention trainings—both the stand-alone video, We Don’t Haze, and the video plus discussion—hold promise for strengthening knowledge of the full range of harm associated with hazing, while amplifying perceptions that support hazing prevention and diminishing perceptions that contribute to normalizing hazing.
Background: While sexual harassment and abuse (SHA) can be perpetrated by various individuals in sport, coaches have been studied as one of the most frequent perpetrators due to their physical and emotional proximity to athletes. Objectives: This systematic review attempted to evaluate the past 20 years of research (2003–2023) examining SHA and inappropriate intimate relationships between coaches and athletes. Methods: Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guideline, 20 studies that met the eligibility criteria were identified using four databases (PubMed, PsycNET, ScienceDirect and SportDiscus). Results: Findings reveal common thematic measures among the studies reviewed, including characteristics of SHA (n = 9), coach-athlete sexual relationships (CASR; n = 7) and grooming (n = 4). Based on the narrative synthesis of each thematic measure, SHA in sport is experienced and/or perceived as various forms of sexual misconduct, ranging from harassment (e.g. sexual jokes, unwanted comments, fondling) to abusive behaviors (e.g. kissing, showing coach’s private body parts, sexual intercourse). Although some studies show the acceptance of CASR especially when athletes are above the age of legal consent, the strong majority of studies suggest that CASR in general is harmful and unacceptable given the unequal power dynamics between the two parties. Additionally, grooming was often involved as a conscious strategy to cross athletes’ personal boundaries for eventual sexual misconduct through building trust and manifesting seemingly innocuous behaviors. Conclusion: Overall, these findings shed light on the current state of research on SHA occurring between coaches and athletes and have implications for sport governing bodies and organizations to be better aware of the issue, which in turn can result in creating a safer environment for youth athletes.
Background: Child maltreatment (CM) is a major public health problem associated with enormous consequences, including impaired health-related quality of life (HRQOL). While the consequences of CM that occurs in the family context have been studied numerous times, studies on the consequences of institutional CM are lacking. This is of particular importance because cases of CM in churches, sport clubs and school, educational and medical settings have become increasingly apparent in Germany. Objectives: Thus, the objective of this study was to assess the association of CM in various institutions with HRQOL in adulthood. Methods: In a cross-sectional observational approach, a representative sample of the German population (N = 2516) was identified via a random-route. Socioeconomic information, HRQOL and CM experiences in school, medical and educational institutions were obtained and statistically evaluated. Results: Of the 2516 participants, 834 (33.14 %) reported CM in institutions and 1194 (47.46 %) reported impaired HRQOL. Participants who reported CM in institutions were more likely to have HRQOL impairments than participants who had been in the respective institution in childhood but had not reported having experienced CM there. In the case of CM in medical institutions, HRQOL impairments increased 2.2–3.9-fold. If CM in school was reported, HRQOL impairments increased 1.6–2.0-fold. If CM in educational institutions was reported, HRQOL impairments increased 2.1–2.7-fold. Conclusion: CM in institutions is associated with an increased likelihood of HRQOL impairments in Germany. Institutions need to be aware of the risk of CM and safeguarding measures should be implemented.
Background: In recent years, there has been an increase in the delivery and evaluation of parent education programs within youth sport. Subsequently, some recent reviews of these programs have been conducted. However, one consistent issue across many of the programs and associated review papers is the lack of an appropriate evaluation framework to guide the planning or associated reporting of the outcomes of the interventions. This has limited understanding of the overall impact of sport parenting interventions. Objectives: Thus, the purposes of the current study were as follows: (a) to identify commonalities in the reporting and evaluation of parent education programs; (b) to identify gaps in the reporting and evaluation of parent education programs; (c) to draw these insights together to provide suggestions regarding how the RE-AIM could be used to enhance planning and evaluation of evidence-based programs for parent education in sport. Specifically, utilizing the RE-AIM framework to provide insights into pertinent evaluation metrics, this integrative review aimed to identify commonalities and gaps in the reporting of parent education programs. Methods: The RE-AIM framework considers the essential elements to assess the external and internal validity of interventions through five dimensions: Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, and Maintenance (Am J Public Health. 1999;89(9):1322-1327). Subsequently, the review aimed to provide suggestions regarding strategies to enhance the planning and evaluation of evidence-based programs for parent education in sport. Results: Overall, the analysis demonstrated that most studies presented some pertinent evaluation information related to the RE-AIM framework, such as the number of participants and contacts made, the measures used, and the program level. However, the studies also lacked information on participant exclusion criteria, the method used to select the delivery agent (e.g., parents engaged in the program), and cost measures. Conclusion: Overall, the current study identified various areas where programs could be enhanced, specifically related to reporting procedural elements (e.g., program design, target population, and costs) pertaining to the implementation of parent education programs.
Background: Abuse is a social concern in all life affairs including sports. Objectives: This qualitative phenomenological study aimed to explore the lived experience of Iranian athletes who had been abused in sports. Methods: The participants were six athletes who had experienced abuse in sports. Due to the sensitivity of the issue, they were selected through the purposeful snowball sampling method. Results: The results of the research showed seven main themes in the Iranian athletes’ experience of abuse in sports: (1) stigma, (2) suppressed hatred and anger, (3) psychological pendulum of continuing and abandoning sport, (4) trampled emotions, (5) ambiguity and imposed harassment, (6) victimhood, and (7) feelings of self-blame. Our findings indicate that abuse among athletes is a multifaceted issue that can take different angles. Conclusion: A better understanding of abuse in sports can help prevent and manage this phenomenon.
Objectives: Grounded in Self-Determination Theory, this game-to-game study among Flemish volleyball coaches and athletes had two primary objectives. First, we examined how variations in need-supportive and need-thwarting coaching styles related to variations in athletes’ basic psychological needs, motivation, and coach-rated performance. Second, we examined whether athletes who perceived their coach as need-thwarting during a specific game would experience different outcomes based on the overall need-supportive or need-thwarting coaching style they encountered across games. Results: Linear mixed modeling on data from 190 elite volleyball athletes (Mage = 23.95, 32.6 % male) and their 26 coaches (Mage = 48.12, 95.7 % male) indicated positive associations between game-specific need-supportive coaching and athletes’ reports of game-specific basic psychological need experiences and motivation, as well as coach-rated performance, whereas game-specific need-thwarting coaching showed opposite trends. Athlete perceptions of a coaching style were more predictive of the outcomes than coach perceptions. Second, the lack of systematic cross-level interactions between game-specific coaching and team-level coaching indicated that the observed correlates of game-specific need-thwarting and need-supportive coaching hold regardless of the perceived overall need-thwarting or need-supportive style of the coach across games.
Objectives: The present study offers novel insight into the topic of experienced and observed emotional abuse by researching factors that affect athletes’ responses to emotional abuse by coaches. The research aimed to explore three main questions: (1) whether athletic identity was associated with the prevalence of emotionally abusive coaching practices, and (2) disclosure of emotional abuse, and (3) whether demographic variations existed in the frequency of emotional abuse, athletic identity, and disclosure of the abuse. Methods: Study participants who filled in an anonymous digital survey consisted of athletes from elite to leisure levels living in Finland (N = 3687, aged 12–80, gender 61% female, 37.7% male, 0.8% other genders). Results: The research findings highlighted three key insights. Firstly, Pearson correlations revealed that a salient athletic identity was related to a higher prevalence of emotional abuse. Secondly, ANOVA/Kruskal-Wallis tests between-groups indicated that particularly children were susceptible to the abuse. Thirdly, a mediation analysis showed that self-identity (aspect of athletic identity) influenced the relationship between experienced emotional abuse and disclosure, by reducing disclosure. As a result, holistic identity development is recommended for athletes and particularly children in sports.
Background: Past studies have highlighted the lack of independent formal complaint mechanisms as one of the most significant barriers to reporting interpersonal violence (IV) in sport. Some countries have since implemented complaint mechanisms specific to sport settings. Evaluations of similar mechanisms in other sectors could inform the development and implementation of complaint mechanisms for IV in sport. Objectives: This rapid review included studies inside and outside the sport context to document the characteristics of complaint mechanisms of IV, barriers or limitations related to such mechanisms, and recommendations resulting from their evaluation. Methods: Following the Cochrane Rapid Reviews Interim Guidance, six databases were searched for peer-reviewed references in English or French, published between 2012 and 2022, and pertaining to the evaluation of formal reporting mechanisms of IV. The 35 references covered mechanisms mainly targeting IV in general (any type) or sexual violence specifically. Results: Complaint mechanisms varied in scope and as a function of their setting, including work, university, military, and medical. We identified barriers and limitations concerning fear of consequences, lack of knowledge, lack of efficiency, lack of trust, and unsupportive culture. Finally, we documented 18 recommendations to improve complaint mechanisms of IV, spanning four categories: (a) organizational accountability, (b) awareness and accessibility, (c) adapted process, and (d) ongoing evaluation. This rapid review draws recommendations from various research disciplines and types of mechanisms to offer a comprehensive portrait of best practices. Conclusion: The findings show that numerous aspects of complaint mechanisms at multiple levels should be considered when developing and implementing complaint mechanisms of IV.
Background: Emotional abuse is the most common form of maltreatment in sports. However, due to the ignorance of the harmful effects and the hiding of this abuse in the shadow of success, less attention has been paid to it. Objectives: In the present study, the researchers investigated the amount of emotional abuse and the subsequent feelings in young and adolescent athletes. Methods: The current research is cross-sectional with a mixed-methods approach, and 100 football players (adolescent = 59, young = 41) participated in the study. Qualitative, semi-structured interviews were used to collect data, which was analyzed and interpreted by grounded theory and SPSS software. Results: Evidence demonstrated that 48% of all participants were emotionally abused by a coach during their sports career, such as humiliation and insults. While this maltreatment has been more common among young athletes, it has left far more short and long-term destructive effects, such as self-blame and loss of pride among adolescents. Based on the findings, we conclude that many athletes are exposed to emotional abuse, which has adverse consequences, especially in adolescence. Conclusion: Therefore, the awareness of athletes and coaches regarding maltreatment and its harmful effects can reduce the frequency of emotional abuse and maintain the psychological safety of athletes.
Background: Child maltreatment poses serious consequences, while sports participation among adolescents offers a potential avenue for mitigating such consequences. Objectives: This study, based on self-determination theory (SDT), examines the associations among child maltreatment, sports motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic), and satisfaction or frustration of basic psychological needs (BPNs). This study also investigated the mediating role of sports motivation in the relationship between child maltreatment and psychological adaptation. Methods: Adolescents engaged in sports were derived from the first wave of a large two-wave study (wave 1: n = 1403; wave 2: n = 618) using data on child maltreatment, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and satisfaction and frustration of within the sports context. Subsequently, data on psychological adaptation, including self-esteem and satisfaction with life, were collected during the second wave. Results: Path analyses revealed satisfaction and frustration of BPNs as significant mediators in the relationship between child maltreatment and sports motivation. In addition, intrinsic motivation mediated the relationship between child maltreatment and psychological adaptation after 18 months. Specifically, the results indicated that enhancing intrinsic motivation in adolescents with a history of child maltreatment by improving satisfaction of BPNs could be an innovative intervention target.
Background: Sexual harassment stems from both sexual feelings and hostility toward the victim. In sports, this problem has been largely overlooked by researchers and scholars, despite its prevalence in society. This phenomenon is allowed to occur due to the socially formed beliefs, myths, and norms that exist, and sports is no exception. Objectives: This study explores the risk factors behind sexual harassment behavior in sports, with a particular emphasis on female football athletes’ perception. The study aims to develop a more comprehensive framework using neo-institutional theory. Methods: A qualitative research approach was adopted, and a snowball sampling method was used to select nine participants who were female athletes. Focus group discussions with ten open-ended questions were carried out, and thematic analysis was performed to analyze the data. Results: The findings revealed that athletes were committed to their field and unveiled some thoughts that emerged as different themes. These themes are the actual risk factors that contribute to sexual harassment, such as organizational climate, low self-esteem, gender stereotype of sports, benevolent sexism, coach power, and hostile sexism factors. The study also identified advanced strategies that could help reduce sexual harassment in sports. Conclusion: The study’s implications are significant for researchers and policymakers alike, and the findings can be used to develop interventions to prevent sexual harassment in sports. However, further research is necessary to understand how sexual harassment negatively affects female athletes’ achievement opportunities and psychological well-being in sports settings in Pakistan.
Background: Although whistleblowing is thought to represent an effective mechanism for detecting and uncovering doping in sport, it has yet to become a widely adopted practice. Understanding the factors that encourage or discourage whistleblowing is of vital importance for the promotion of this practice and the development of pedagogical material to enhance the likelihood of whistleblowing. Objectives: The current study employed a qualitative methodology to explore the personal and organisational factors that underpin intentions to blow the whistle or that may lead to engagement in whistleblowing behaviours in sport. Methods: Thirty-three competitive athletes across a range of sports took part in a semi-structured interview which sought to explore what they would do should they encounter a doping scenario. Results: Content analysis revealed that whistleblowing is a dynamic process characterised by the interaction of a range of personal and organisational factors in determining the intention to report PED use. These factors included moral reasoning, a desire to keep the matter “in-house”, perceived personal costs, institutional attitudes to doping, and social support. Analysis revealed a number of “intervening events”, including a perceived lack of organisational protection (e.g., ethical leadership) within some sporting sub-cultures, which present an important obstacle to whistleblowing. The intention to report doping was underpinned by a “fairness-loyalty trade-off” which involved athletes choosing to adhere to either fairness norms (which relate to a sense that all people and groups are treated equally) or loyalty norms (which reflect preferential treatment towards an in-group) when deciding whether they would blow the whistle. Conclusion: The promotion of fairness norms that emphasise a group’s collective interests might encourage athletes to view whistleblowing as a means of increasing group cohesiveness and effectiveness and thereby increase the likelihood of this practice.
Background: With current estimates of up to one in three children experiencing some form of sexual violence in sports, the need for effective measures to prevent sexual violence in sports is high. Survivors’ narratives of sexual violence in sports uncover the lack of (adequate) bystander action and the urgent need for stakeholder education to effectively prevent sexual violence in youth sports. Objectives: This study presents the “All Aboard” educational program, targeting youth sports coaches in Flanders (Belgium). The program aimed to stimulate the intentions of youth coaches to engage in positive bystander behavior to adequately detect, assess, and respond to signs of sexual violence toward young athletes. After two pilot studies, this program was implemented in nine Flemish sports clubs. Methods: Coaches’ readiness to change, intentions and attitudes, perceived norms, and perceived behavioral control were measured before and after they participated in the program using the “And what would you do?” questionnaire, constructed according to the Reasoned Action Approach. Results: After the program, positive change was found in coaches’ intentions to be a positive bystander, e.g., they acknowledged the value of being a positive bystander, felt more comfortable being a positive bystander and believed that doing so would improve the situation. Conclusion: This article is one of the first to report on an evidence-based intervention program to prevent sexual violence in sports by fostering positive attitudes toward positive bystander behaviors by coaches. Opportunities and challenges of implementing education to prevent sexual violence in local sports clubs are discussed.
Objectives: This study examines the factors affecting women officials’ intention to leave their chosen sport, including personal, work-related, and sociocultural factors. Methods: The empirical analysis is based on survey data of women officials in 69 different sports across Europe (n = 3,214). Results: Overall, 10.7% of women expressed a turnover intention. Regression analyses indicate that this intention is higher for women who have more officiating experience (16–20 years), officiate at lower levels of sport (grassroots, junior), frequently experience abuse, and dislike the stress and time commitments of officiating, lack of support from the federation, and their lack of opportunity to progress. Younger women (≤24 years) with a mentor, who enjoy being part of a sport community and live in a more gender equal society are less likely to leave. Conclusion: The findings suggest that multiple factors are at work, which need to be addressed by sport managers to retain women in officiating roles.
Objectives: This study aimed at examining coach-athlete violence based on the retrospective reports of adults who had been athletes as children and adolescents; predict variables that contribute to the existence of such violence; describe difficulties that the participants encountered as young athletes following such violence; and reveal the outcomes of such violence on their emotions and behaviors, in the past and present. Methods: The applied mixed methods comprised quantitative self-reporting questionnaires and qualitative interviews. The former included 440 participants (mean age 27.6) who had trained for at least one year in a sports union youth department; the latter included 14 participants (aged 23–37). These competitive athletes came from eight branches of sports. The interviews were analyzed based on the Narrative Approach. Results: According to the quantitative study, all participants had experienced coach violence at least once during their career, mainly psychological violence and neglect, followed by physical violence. Sexual violence was least reported. The age of their retirement from sports and the number of coaches that they had had were significant predictors of violence. Thematic analysis of the qualitative interviews resulted in six types of coach-athlete violence: (1) psychological violence; (2) verbal violence; (3) starvation and food fattening; (4) non-proportional punishing; (5) physical violence; and (6) sexual violence. Conclusion: It is vital that coach-athlete violence is addressed in public discourse, that the topic of young athletes’ safety is introduced into coaching education, and that a position holder is nominated to be in charge of such safety in all sports organizations.
December 2023 – March 2024
Background: Given the documented benefits associated with organized sport and thus the assumption that youth who leave sport are losing out on developmental benefits, dropout has been predominantly framed as a crisis to be solved. Objective: Throughout this paper we aimed to challenge the overarching narrative of youth dropout from organized sport as a negative outcome only by highlighting the complexity of youth sport experiences and participation patterns. Results: First, we highlight the lack of conceptual clarity regarding the term “dropout” and question its relevance for describing youth’s sport experiences. Next, we discuss how declines in organized sport participation may reflect developmentally appropriate transitions in sport and broader physical activity for youth and across the life span. Finally, we suggest that, at times, disengagement may be a positive and protective outcome for youth when the sport environment is harmful. Conclusion: Recommendations for future research and practice are provided to advance the understanding of youth sport experiences and participation patterns.
Purpose: Transgender girls’ right to participate in high school sports has been attacked by legislation banning them from doing so. This study uses open-ended survey responses among transgender high school girls to examine reasons that they choose to participate or not participate in sports. Methods: Data come from 294 transgender girls currently in high school who answered one of two open-ended questions about sports participation as part of a larger survey on lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, or questioning (LGBTQ) youth mental health. An inductive approach with exploratory and descriptive codes was used, resulting in a codebook with 14 codes about high school girls’ choices to participate or not participate in sports. Results: Among respondents’ answers about why they participate in sports, six codes were identified: physical health benefits, mental health benefits, fun, social connections, family expectations, and gender affirmation. Among respondents’ answers about why they do not participate in sports, eight codes were identified: not interested in sports, gendered teams or spaces, not athletic, physical or mental health limitations, social discomfort around peer athletes, worsened gender dysphoria, bullying or harassment, and lack of resources or access. These codes were not mutually exclusive and many responses were tagged with multiple codes. Conclusion: This study highlights the need for inclusive sports environments for transgender athletes. Providing LGBTQ cultural competence training for coaches, administrators, and parents may decrease barriers and increase comfort for transgender athletes, allowing them to benefit from the skills and education that sports provide.
Background: There is minimal research on the sport experiences of racialized young women athletes in Canada. When studying racialized groups, an inclusive and meaningful approach to research is necessary because ethnicity and race are integral to understanding identity, diversity, discrimination, and overall experiences in sport. Objective: The purpose of this qualitative description study was to explore the identities and body-related sport experiences of racialized young women athletes in a variety of sports in Canada. Methods: Eight racialized young women athletes (ages 14–18 years; Mage = 16.63, SD = 1.19) participated in multiple semi-structured one-on-one interviews and reflexive photography. Results: A reflexive thematic analysis was conducted, and three overarching themes were generated that describe the athletes’ identities and body-related sport experiences: (a) Who I am vs who they say I am; (b) My unique body in sport; and (c) The importance of representation. From these findings, three critical factors – intersectionality, discrimination, and diversity – are examined that influence the quality of sport experiences for racialized young women athletes in Canada.
Objective: The aim of the current study was to examine risk and protective factors related to bullying in sport. Methods: Adopting the methodological approach outlined by Arksey and O’Malley (International Journal of Social Research Methodology 8(1):19–32, 2005), 37 articles met the inclusion criteria. Results: A consistent definition of bullying could not be identified in the publications examined, and several articles (n = 8) did not explicitly define bullying. The most frequent risk factor identified was an individual’s social background (n = 9). Negative influence of coaches (n = 5), level of competition (n = 5), lack of supportive club culture (n = 5) and issues in locker rooms (n = 4) were among the most commonly cited risk factors for bullying in sport settings. Preventative policies were cited as the most common method to reduce the incidence of bullying (n = 13). Contextually tailored intervention programmes (n = 5) were also noted as a key protective factor, particularly for marginalised groups, including athletes with disabilities or members of the LGBTQ+ community. The need for sport-specific bullying prevention education was highlighted by 10 of the articles reviewed. In summary, the current review accentuates the range of risk and protective factors associated with sport participation. Conclusion: Furthermore, the need for educational training programmes to support coaches in addressing and preventing bullying within sport settings is emphasised.
Background: Recent scholarship studying the impact of race-based prejudice has emphasized its rampant persistence throughout all aspects of modern society, including the world of sports. Prior research from American leagues has shown that even referees, trained officials intended to enact neutral judgements, are subject to bias against Black and dark-skinned players. Objective: To extend these studies and inform policies aimed at combating racial bias in public spaces more broadly, we report results from a unique dataset of over 6500 player-year observations from the Italian Serie A to examine whether these biases persist in European football. Results: Our results show that darker-skinned players receive more foul calls and more cards than lighter-skinned players, controlling for a range of potential confounders and productivity-relevant mediators. By exploiting an absence of fans induced by the COVID-19 pandemic, we also present preliminary evidence that fans may play a key role in inducing poor calls against darker-skinned players.
Background: Parents are an important social agent that can shape their child’s behaviour in sport. However, the association between a youth athlete’s perception of their parent’s sideline sport behaviour and their own sporting behaviours is currently unclear. Objective: Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to explore the relationship between parent and youth athlete behaviours in sport settings. Methods: Australian youth athletes (n = 67) participating in team-based sports completed an online survey where they reported their parents positive and negative sideline behaviours and their own prosocial and antisocial sport behaviour during the past month. Results: Linear regression results suggested that parent’s positive behaviours were associated with youth prosocial behaviours, whereas parent’s negative behaviours were associated with youth antisocial behaviours. Results provide preliminary quantitative evidence that youth athletes’ perceptions of their parents’ sideline behaviours predict their own on-field behaviours. As antisocial athlete behaviours were positively associated with parent negative behaviours, sport organisations should target, and ideally eliminate, negative parent behaviours. Conversely, to improve prosocial athlete behaviour, encouraging positive parent behaviours should be promoted.
Background: A growing body of research is looking into risk factors for interpersonal violence (IV) in sport. This research suggests the existence of several important risk factors, especially organizational and social factors. One of these factors is the beliefs regarding instrumental effects of violence. Coaches may want to drive performance, deter failure, test resilience and commitment, develop toughness, assure interpersonal control, and promote internal competition. In sum, available evidence suggests the risk of IV increases when coaches believe in the effectiveness of strategies involving IV to enhance athlete performance or perceive external approval for these practices. Objective: The studies presented in this article seeks to develop and validate the Perceived Instrumental Effects of Violence in Sport (PIEVS) Scale in order to measure those beliefs in coaches. Methods: In study 1, item generation, expert consultation, cognitive interviews, pilot test and item reduction phases led to 25 items for the PIEVS around six dimensions. In study 2, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted with 690 coaches in order to determine the PIEVS factorial structure and the convergent and divergent validity of the scale was tested (long and short form). Results: Our results suggested a one-factor solution for the PIEVS (25 items). This one-factor model provided an excellent fit to the data and a very good internal consistency. The PIEVS and empowering motivational climate were negatively correlated, which supported divergent validity as expected. The PIEVS was positively correlated with the disempowering motivational climate and with sport ethic norms, which supported convergent validity as expected. Discussion: These findings provide preliminary evidence for the appropriateness of the PIEVS Scale to measure perceived instrumental effects of violence in coaches.
Background: The Minority Stress Model suggests that sexual minorities may have more significant mental health problems due to the stigma attached to their sexuality. This concern is particularly true among LGBTQ+ athletes who are forced to conceal their true sexual identity and remain in the closet. Outness or the coming out process is seen as one of the ways to effectively deal with these mental health concerns internally since these athletes would now be true to themselves. This process, however, does not come without risks. Outness for these athletes is achieved through coming out or disclosing their sexual minority status. Still, this often entails the risk of experiencing stereotypes, harassment, discrimination, and social rejection, which may lead to mental health issues if not addressed. Despite the known dangers, the coming out process remains ideal, with benefits outweighing the risks and disadvantages. Methods: The current study investigated the relationship between outness and mental health among 204 Filipino LGB athletes using the Nebraska Outness Scale and Mental Health Inventory – 18. Results: Results revealed that outness and mental health have a significant relationship, with outness predicting better mental health among our participants. The disclosure was also found to significantly predict more substantial variation in the increase of psychological well-being, while concealment indicates more significant variability in the decrease of psychological distress. Conclusion: These findings suggest the critical role of community and social support in promoting better mental health among LGB athletes, which will help foster and showcase their talents in their respective sports.
Background: Interpersonal Violence (IV) against children in sports is a prevalent problem and has a major impact on their well-being. However, the causal relationship and the costs for society remain unclear. Objective: The aim of this study is to estimate the causal effect of severe IV in sports on Subjective Well-Being (SWB) and to monetize the collective loss for society. Methods: The study used survey data from 4003 respondents in the Netherlands and Flanders (Belgium). The questionnaire included current SWB as well as 41 items to assess experiences with psychological, physical and sexual IV in sports before the age of 18. Severity was quantified by experts and reported frequency. By using the number of sports that someone participated in during their youth as an instrumental variable to control for confounding, the study estimates the causal effect of severe IV on SWB. The Three-Stage Well-Being Valuation Approach was used to monetize the loss in SWB in terms of income compensation. Results: The results show that experiencing severe IV in sports results in significant lower SWB levels (b = −0.45, p < .01). The lower SWB is comparable to an annual loss of income of 9672 euro per person. Conclusions: We have found evidence for a causal effect of severe IV in childhood on the SWB later in life. The results highlight the long-term, extensive impact of experiencing severe IV in sports that exceeds direct physical and psychological health outcomes.
Background: The association between SHA and negative mental health increases the need to understand risk factors for SHA victimization, which is important for future development of prevention programs. Objective: To examine which combinations of demographic- and mental health factors were associated with subsequent SHA victimization, and the prevalence of elite athletes, recreational athletes, and reference students who experienced sexual revictimization. Methods: Norwegian elite athletes and recreational athletes attending sport high schools, and reference students attending non-sport high schools (mean age: 17.1 years) were eligible for participation. The participants answered an online questionnaire at two measurement points one year apart, T1 and T2 (n = 1139, 51.1 % girls). After testing for measurement invariance, data were analyzed with Classification and Regression Tree analysis (CRT) using demographic- and mental health variables from T1 as independent variables, and SHA at T2 as outcome. Results: The combination of being a girl with high level of symptoms of eating disorders and other psychological symptoms was associated with subsequent reporting of SHA. Among the students with lifetime experience of SHA at T1 (n = 533, 58.3 %), 49.5 % reported revictimization at T2 (60.9 % girls, 32.2 % boys, p ≤ .001). The prevalence of SHA revictimization was lower among elite athletes (44.3 %) compared with recreational athletes (49.1 %) and reference students (59.4 %, p = .019). Conclusion: The combination of female gender and mental health symptoms are risk factors for subsequent SHA victimization. These findings, and the high prevalence of SHA revictimization is important knowledge for developing preventive programs targeting elite athletes, recreational athletes, and reference students.
Background: Inequalities related to racial identity are consistently reported across social institutions, not least education, and sport. These inequalities consistently challenge ‘post-race’ narratives that rationalise racism down to individual prejudices and poor decision-making. This paper presents part of the findings from a wider a twelve-month research project commissioned by British University and Colleges Sport (BUCS) to explore race equality. This wider research privileged the voices of non-White students and staff in an exploration of race and equality in British UK university sport. ‘Non-white’ was chosen as a race identifier to focus on Whiteness, the normalised, raceless power that reproduces itself both knowingly and unknowingly, to ensure racial ‘others’ remain subordinate. This paper presents the findings of the student voices. Objective: In this study a research team of academic and student researchers explored the experiences of 38 students across five universities. Methods: Generating case studies from each university, the data was analysed from an Intersectional and Critical Race Theory perspective. Two core themes relating to negotiating Whiteness were developed from the data analysis which reflected experiences of university sport as predominantly White spaces; ‘Play by the Rules’ and ‘Keep You Guessing’. Results: Racial abuse was subtle, camouflaged in comments and actions that happened momentarily and hence were implausible to capture and evidence. For incidents to be addressed, evidence had to meet a ‘beyond doubt’ standard. Students were required to consciously negotiate racial bias and abuse to ensure they did not provide a justification for abuse. Navigating racialisation and stereotypes, plus White denial, was additional emotional labour for students. This mechanism of silencing the victim served to normalise racism for both the abused and perpetrator. Conclusion: The conclusion explores potential ways of disrupting these mechanisms of Whiteness in placing students’ welfare at the heart of university sport.
Youth sport competitions are often emotionally charged events, with children, parents, coaches, and officials reporting emotions ranging from anxiety and stress through to enjoyment because of their involvement. One of the sources for the negative emotions and experiences associated with youth sport is the behaviors displayed by spectators on the sidelines. Typically, in youth sport events, these spectators are the parents of the children involved in the competition. Recognizing the detrimental consequences that arise for children when parents are inappropriately or negatively involved on the sidelines, sport psychology researchers and practitioners have increasingly targeted interventions at improving parents’ involvement in competitions. Although such interventions are valuable and important for improving children’s youth sport experiences, their focus is typically exclusively upon the interactions and relationships between parents and their children. However, negative behaviors from parents on the sidelines can also impact others in the environment, particularly sports officials who report abuse and aggression from the sidelines as one of the primary reasons for leaving their roles. As officiating numbers decline, sporting organizations are considering how to best tackle these attrition rates and one area that may be worthy of consideration is the interaction between parents and officials. To-date, limited consideration has been given to the bi-directional interactions between parents and officials or to steps that could be taken to improve interactions. To this end, the purpose of this commentary is to increase awareness, initiate conversations, stimulate research, and enhance applied practice targeting the interactions between officials and parents in youth sport.
Background: Concern about interpersonal violence (IV) in sport is increasing, yet its implications remain poorly understood, particularly among currently competing college athletes. Objective: To document the self-reported prevalence of IV in college sports; identify associated risk factors; examine potential consequences associated with athletes’ psychosocial well-being, emotional connection to their sport, and willingness to seek help; and explore the associations between IV reporting and perceived variations in coaching styles. Mehods: This survey study analyzes results of the 2021 to 2022 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) myPlaybook survey, which was administered from July to December 2021 to 123 colleges and universities across the US. Participants were NCAA athletes aged 18 to 25 years who were current players on an NCAA-sanctioned team. Self-reported demographic characteristics (eg, athlete gender identity and sexual orientation) and perceived differences in supportive vs abusive coaching styles (eg, athlete autonomy, team culture, and extent of abusive supervision). The primary outcome was self-reported experiences of IV in sport during the college sports career of currently competing college athletes. Types of IV considered were physical abuse, financial abuse, sexual abuse, psychological or emotional abuse, and neglect or abandonment. Outcomes potentially affected by IV were assessed with 4 questionnaires. Results: A total of 4119 athletes (mean [SD] age, 19.3 [1.5] years; 2302 males [55.9%]) completed the survey (response rate, 21.2%). One in 10 athletes (404 of 4119 [9.8%]) reported experiencing at least 1 type of IV during their college sports career, of whom two-thirds (267 [6.5%]) experienced IV within the past 6 weeks. On multivariable analysis, female gender identity (odds ratio [OR], 2.14; 95% CI, 1.46-3.13), nonheterosexual sexual orientation (OR, 1.56; 95% CI, 1.01-2.42), increasing age beyond 18 years (OR, 1.13; 95% CI, 1.01-1.30), increasing year of NCAA eligibility beyond the first year (OR, 1.19; 95% CI, 1.02-1.39), and participation in select sports (eg, volleyball: OR, 2.77 [95% CI, 1.34-5.72]; ice hockey: OR, 2.86 [95% CI, 1.17-6.95]) were independently associated with IV. When exposed to IV, college athletes reported experiencing consistently worse psychosocial outcomes, including increased burnout (mean difference on a 5-point Likert scale, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.63-0.86; P < .001) and an expressed desire to consider quitting their sport (mean difference, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.70-0.92; P < .001). They were not, however, less willing to seek help. Differences in coaching style were associated with differences in IV reporting. In risk-adjusted linear regression models, having a more supportive coach was associated with a 7.4 (95% CI, 6.4-8.4) absolute percentage point decrease in athletes’ probability of reporting experiencing IV. In contrast, having a more abusive coach was associated with up to a 15.4 (95% CI, 13.8-17.1) absolute percentage point increase in athletes’ probability of reporting experiencing IV. Conclusions: Results of this survey study suggest that IV is associated with marked changes in the psychosocial health and emotional well-being of college athletes, particularly those who identify as female and with nonheterosexual sexual orientations. Variations in coaching style have the potential to alter these associations. Ongoing efforts are needed to leverage the unique position that coaches hold to help reduce IV and create safe places where all college athletes can thrive.
September 2023 – November 2023
Backgroung: Spectators can engage in high levels of verbal aggression toward youth hockey officials. Often, the perpetrators of this aggression are the parents. Objectives: Our aim was to test the motivational factors involved in explaining why hockey parents sometimes take things too far and engage in verbally aggressive behavior toward officials. We reasoned that verbal aggression toward officials would be a function of two forms of motivational imbalance. First, in line with the dualistic model of passion, we hypothesized that verbal aggression would be positively associated with hockey parents’ obsessive passion, an imbalanced form of passion. Also, based on the compensatory model of passion, we predicted that obsessive passion would be associated with imbalanced psychological need satisfaction involving high need satisfaction from being a hockey parent, but low global need satisfaction. Methods: We administered online surveys to Canadian hockey parents (N = 992) assessing their verbal aggression toward officials, passion for being a hockey parent, and psychological need satisfaction from being a hockey parent and in general. Results: Using structural equation modeling, we found support for a model in which high need satisfaction from being a hockey parent and low need satisfaction in general were associated with obsessive passion. Obsessive passion, in turn, was associated with greater verbal aggression toward referees. Conclusion: These findings help reveal why some hockey parents insult, threaten, and engage in other forms of verbal aggression toward officials. They also highlight the importance of maintaining motivational balance among sport parents.
Sport law knowledge is a vital component of sport management education and professional preparation for those working in the sport and recreation industries. It has been more than 15 years since scholars fully analyzed the content of sport law courses. Given the increase in litigation surrounding the sport industry, there is increased focus and interest in the law as a teaching tool within the sport management curriculum. Sport management curricula must continue to evolve and adapt to respond to the dynamic nature of industry and academia. Therefore, this study updates foundational work on the content of sport law classes in U.S. undergraduate sport management programs. Through an online survey of sport law course instructors in undergraduate sport management programs, we discovered all instructors include Title IX in their courses. Consistent with previous research, the next most covered areas included aspects of negligence law and contract law. Many instructors thought that criminal domestic violence/intimate partner violence was an important topic that they were not covering in their course. We did find differences in course content by instructor educational degree and legal practice history. This work can inform sport management program assessments and sport law course syllabi construction.
Objective Homophobic language is common in male sport and associated with negative physical and mental health outcomes for all sport participants, but particularly for gay or bisexual youth populations. Evidence-based interventions are needed to reduce such language and mitigate harm. This study evaluated the effectiveness of a short social-cognitive educational intervention delivered by professional rugby union players in youth sport. Methods In a two-arm, cluster randomised controlled trial, 13 Australian youth rugby teams from 9 clubs (N=167, ages 16–20, mean 17.9) were randomised into intervention or control groups. Professional rugby players delivered the intervention in-person. Frequency of homophobic language use was measured 2 weeks before and 2 weeks after the intervention. Hypothesised factors underpinning homophobic language were also measured, including descriptive (other people use), prescriptive and proscriptive injunctive norms (approval/disapproval by others), and attitudes towards the acceptability of homophobic language. Results At baseline, 49.1% of participants self-reported using homophobic language in the past 2 weeks and 72.7% reported teammates using homophobic language. Significant relationships were found between this behaviour and the hypothesised factors targeted by the intervention. However, generalised estimating equations found the intervention did not significantly reduce homophobic language, or alter the associated norms and attitudes, relative to controls. Conclusion Use of professional rugby athletes to deliver education on homophobic language was not effective. Other approaches to reduce homophobic language (and other forms of discrimination) such as peer-to-peer education, and enforcement of policies prohibiting specific language by coaches, should be explored.
Background: Sporting environments provide opportunities for perpetrators to commit child sexual abuse (CSA). While awareness of CSA in sport and preventative interventions are increasing, CSA in sport still occurs at alarming rates. Objectives: A systematic review was conducted to identify and synthesize the extant literature on the enabling factors for CSA in sport. Methods: The 34 included articles were peer-reviewed and were primary sources; had full-text versions in English; included the individual, situational, environmental, or systemic antecedent factors and characteristics which enable CSA in organized sport (clubs, schools, universities, and representative teams); and focused on abuse in children (0–18 years old), and included retrospective incidents. The enabling factors from across the broader sports system were identified and mapped using a systems thinking-based approach, the Risk Management Framework (RMF) and the associated AcciMap method. Results: The results indicated that enabling factors for CSA in sport were identified at multiple levels of the sporting system hierarchy. The results show that 24.1% (n = 46) of the enabling factors identified in the literature relate to the hierarchical level of the Athlete, teammates, opponents, and fans levels, and 52.9% (n = 101) of the enabling factors relate to the level of Direct supervisors, management, medical, and performance personnel level. However, only 13% (n = 25) of enabling factors to CSA in sport were identified at the combined top four hierarchical levels. Results indicate that the problem of CSA in sport is a systems issue, and future research is required to explore how these factors interact to enable CSA in sport.
Background: Investigating prevalence of child abuse in sport is a relatively new field of research, born from the need for credible data on this phenomenon. Objective: To establish prevalence rates of interpersonal violence against children in sport in six European countries. Participants and setting: The sample (N = 10,302) consists of individuals aged 18–30 who had participated in organized sport prior to age 18 (49.3 % male, 50 % female). Methods: A self-report questionnaire was developed (the Interpersonal Violence Against Children in Sport Questionnaire or IVACS-Q) to measure prevalence of five categories of interpersonal violence (neglect, psychological violence, physical violence, non-contact sexual violence, and contact sexual violence) against children who participate in sport. Validation testing (published separately) showed reasonable levels of convergent and divergent validity. Prevalence rates are calculated by national context, whether inside or outside sport, and by sex (male/female). Results: Prevalence of IVACS inside sport differed by category: psychological violence (65 %, n = 6679), physical violence (44 %, n = 4514), neglect (37 %, n = 3796), non-contact sexual violence (35 %, n = 3565), and contact sexual violence (20 %, n = 2060). Relatively small geographical differences were found. Across all categories, males (79 %, n = 4018) reported significantly more experiences inside sport than females (71 %, n = 3653) (χ2 (1) = 92.507, p < .000). Strong correlations were found between experiencing violence inside and outside sport.
Background: Student-athletes are one subgroup of college students in the USA at risk for dating violence and sexual risk behaviors. Despite this, research on student-athletes’ dating behaviors is limited; existing research pertains primarily to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I athletes and focuses on male student-athletes as perpetrators of dating and sexual violence. While some existing programs aim to reduce dating violence and promote healthy relationships, these programs are education based, and not tailored to the specific strengths and challenges of student-athletes. We therefore designed Supporting Prevention in Relationships for Teams (SPoRT), a novel, four-session prevention intervention for Division III student-athletes of all genders to reduce dating violence and sexual risk behavior by targeting knowledge and skills identified in pilot research, incorporating psychoeducation with techniques from cognitive-behavioral therapy, mindfulness, bystander intervention, and normative feedback. This study represents stage 1 of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Stage Model for Behavioral Intervention Development, evaluating the feasibility and acceptability of SPoRT. Objective: We describe the development, content, and proposed delivery methods for SPoRT and evaluated the feasibility and acceptability of the program using a mixed-methods approach. Methods: Thirty college student-athletes (12 men, 18 women) completed questionnaires and participated in focus groups to provide feedback on the program’s length, timing, group size and dynamics, content, and suggestions for making the SPoRT prevention intervention more feasible and acceptable. Results: Our recruitment procedures were successful, and participants rated the program as feasible in terms of delivery methods and logistics. Participants liked that SPoRT was developed based on pilot data collected from student-athletes, brief, and skills based and tailored to athletic team needs. SPoRT was perceived as appropriate and relevant to student-athlete needs in terms of dating violence and sexual risk prevention knowledge and skills. Most participants (63%) rated the program as “excellent” and said they would recommend it to others. Conclusions: We found SPoRT to be both feasible and acceptable in terms of content and delivery. Suggested modifications will be incorporated into the SPoRT healthy relationships prevention intervention to be tested in an NIH Stage 1 efficacy trial.
While the topic of athlete welfare has gained significant attention in academic literature, to date there has been a primacy placed on physical settings and their ability to augment or thwart the welfare of athletes. The discourse has, therefore, neglected the advent of social media spaces and their potential to have a significant impact on athlete welfare. Social media platforms are now a vital component in the lives of athletes who are increasingly reliant on maintaining an online presence and following. In this commentary, we consider the scope of social media and its potential impact on the welfare of athletes, particularly female athletes. In doing so, we identify and discuss some of the positive health and well-being outcomes associated with increased online communication and self-representation in social media spaces. We examine the scholarship concerning the threats posed by social media spaces, consider power in virtual environments and its impact on welfare, and finally suggest some future directions for scholarship in this field.
Methods: This study employs descriptive and regression analyses of the National Sports and Society Survey (N = 3,993) to examine the patterns and implications of sexual stigma and prejudice in sports contexts by focusing on U.S. adults’ reports of sports-related mistreatment and involvement. Results: Results indicate that about 1/3 of adults perceive sports as unwelcoming to LGBT athletes and nearly 40% report experiencing sports-related mistreatment; adults who identify as a sexual minority are particularly likely to perceive sports as unwelcoming and to report personal mistreatment. They are also less likely than self-identified heterosexuals to play, spectate, and talk about sports; sports-related mistreatment and childhood sports histories do not explain these patterns. Conclusions: Overall, the findings suggest that more action is needed to offset the presence and influence of sexual stigma and prejudice and to provide more welcoming sports environments for all.
Background: Sport official’s experience of abuse in their role is well documented, but the additional gendered barriers that women officials face are not. Objective: This study used Concept Mapping to explore the most important and frequent barriers that women referees and officials in Australian basketball face. Results were analyzed according to the Socio-Ecological Framework with a feminist lens, which demonstrated the complexity and interconnectedness of barriers between different levels. Results: While participants were not specifically asked about gendered experiences, the results indicated that barriers were overwhelmingly gendered at every level, including discriminatory resourcing, lack of senior women, and concerningly, incidents of sexual harassment. Conclusions: This research sheds new light on the experience of women officials and the organizational and societal barriers that limit their careers and make their workplace unsafe. Finally, it discusses where the locus of responsibility lies in addressing these issues for women sport officials, placing emphasis on the role of organizations.
Objective: The purpose of the research was to explore competitive dancers’ experiences of harm in the dance environment with a focus placed on dancers’ social identities. Limited attention has been given to instances of harm in competitive dance. In addition, the impact of social identities on experiences of harm has yet to be discussed. Methods: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 24 competitive dancers. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis leading to four generated themes, including the higher value of boy dancers, Whiteness as the standard, the impact of socio-economic status, and the sexualization of young girls and women. Results: Competitive dancers reported that their social identities impacted their dance experience and at times influenced their opportunities to be showcased in choreography as well as their instructor-dancer relationship.
Objective: This research was conducted to design an interpretive structural model of factors affecting the prevention and control of violence and aggression in football fans. Methods: The statistical population of this study was entirely composed of sport experts, executive managers, sociologists, and management professors in Iran. Thirteen individuals were accordingly selected as the research sample using non-probability purposeful sampling. Results: The effective factors were identified through library study and reviewing the theoretical foundations and research background. Confirming the content validity of these factors by considering experts’ opinions, 14 factors were finally identified. The interrelationships between the factors were determined using Interpretive Structural Modeling (ISM), and network analysis based on Decision Making and Trial Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL) was also employed to measure their importance, ranking them accordingly. The factors were categorized into four levels according to ISM. The highest level (first level) includes “match day service quality,” “fair refereeing,” “consolidation of social ties,” and “cognitive reconstruction of fans.” The second level contains “design, protection, and security of stadiums,” “patterning and identification,” and “use of calming techniques.” “Awareness and informing” and “anger control training” belong to the third level, while the lowest level (fourth level) includes “media,” “fan organizations,” “laws, regulations, and security solutions,” “moral education or persuasion,” and “teaching communication skills to fans.” Among them, the last level is fundamental, influencing the other factors. Conclusions: The results obtained in this work can be used as a basis for policymaking to reduce violence and aggression among football fans.
As a member of the athlete medical/sport science support team, do you have a clinical approach to recognising harassment and abuse in your child athletes, and managing allegations? Are you confident that your medical interventions cannot be classified as medical mismanagement? While participation in sport has many physical and psychological health benefits, athletes are not immune to harassment and abuse that occurs during sport participation. Psychological abuse, the gateway to other forms of abuse such as physical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect, is prevalent in all sports and at all levels. Specifically, the science base informs us that child athletes have a significant prevalence of harassment and abuse with potentially long-lasting and devasting psychological sequelae for the affected athlete. Particularly vulnerable groups of child athletes for harassment and abuse include elite athletes, athletes with a disability, and athletes that identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender. Ethical frameworks and codes of conduct for physician practice and behaviours exist that identify the requirement for sport medicine physicians to have the clinical competence to recognise harassment and abuse, to manage allegations, and to support recovery, using a trauma-informed approach. The sport medicine physician also has a role to play in prevention of harassment and abuse in sport through educational initiatives, supporting research, as well as advocacy work to ensure sport organisations have effective safeguarding policies and procedures. Sport medicine physicians should ask themselves, are you doing all that you should to protect and support the child athletes under your care?
Racial disparities in perceptions of sexual assault incidents have largely focused on male-perpetrated violence against women. However, in some contexts such as college sports, sexual victimization of men may disproportionately impact racial minorities. Therefore, it is necessary to examine sexual assault in these contexts. Using a 2 × 2 factorial survey experimental design with vignettes pertaining to a collegiate athlete sexual assault scenario involving two male student-athletes, we examined perceptions of (1) racial differences in offender motivation, (2) racial differences in victim culpability, and (3) racial differences in preferred sanctions. Compared to the White-White scenario, participants in the Black-Black scenario perceived the perpetrator to be less motivated by power and control or mental health/bad upbringing. Black victims of White-perpetrated sexual assault were perceived as more able to offer physical resistance and therefore partially culpable for the incident. Finally, participants were more punitive for the scenarios involving Black offenders, especially when the victim was White. Participants were harsher in their preferences for both university sanctions and criminal justice sanctions, with the Black-White scenario producing a greater likelihood of recommending expulsion and incarceration. We discuss the implications of our findings for understanding racial disparities in sexual assault generally, as well as for college student-athlete contexts.
Background: Athlete voice is fundamental to good governance; however, sports organisations have been slow to involve young people in safe sport initiatives. In Lithuania, the location of this study, athlete welfare issues are rarely discussed, and the development of a safe sport environment is new to the policy agenda. Objective: This project aimed to empower a cohort of student-athletes to promote good practice and safe sport in Lithuania. A secondary aim was to understand the content areas that young athletes prioritised in promoting safe sport. Methods: 17 Lithuanian university student-athletes worked in small groups to identify a safe sport issue that was relevant in their country and created awareness-raising poster campaigns to start conversations about it. Results: Focus group interviews were conducted with participants who highlighted the need to challenge ‘taken-for-granted’ ideas about athlete welfare and the importance of involving young athletes in advancing the welfare and safe sport agendas.
Background: Competitive sports shape character and moral development, but views differ on the impact of excessive competitiveness on sports ethics. Methods: We used an integrated and microlevel approach to examine the relationships among the achievement goals, social goals, and sports ethics of 268 young Chinese athletes. Results: Results of a self-evaluation survey showed that task orientation was positively associated with respect for social conventions as well as respect for rules and officials, and was negatively associated with instrumental aggression. Ego orientation was negatively associated with respect for social conventions, respect for rules and officials, and respect for opponents. Social affiliation was positively associated with respect for social conventions, respect for rules and officials, and respect for opponents. Social status was negatively associated with respect for rules and officials, and positively associated with instrumental aggression. Finally, social recognition was negatively associated with respect for social conventions and respect for opponents. Conclusions: Our findings provide insight into the mechanistic motivations behind ethical behaviors, offering theoretical guidance for promoting sports ethics among young athletes.
Background: Compared to non-disabled peers, athletes with disabilities are at an increased risk of interpersonal violence in sport. Athletes with intellectual disabilities specifically may face compounded risk due to impaired communication and social challenges. Despite the inherent risk of interpersonal violence in athletes with intellectual disabilities, there is a paucity of literature focused on safeguarding strategies in this population, and no global consensus prevention guidelines exist. Objective: The goal of this review was to synthesize literature on interpersonal violence in athletes with intellectual disabilities and propose an evidence-informed safeguarding framework. Results: Future research and practice should emphasize tailored training on appropriate athlete protection strategies and ways to recognize and respond to suspicions of abuse in this population. Given the benefits of sports participation for persons with intellectual disabilities, implementation of fit-for-purpose safeguarding strategies would help address any elevated risk of interpersonal violence. Formal monitoring and evaluation of these initiatives can help minimize interpersonal violence.
Objective: This study explored the relationships between athletes’ experiences of maltreatment and mental health indicators. Methods: Canadian National Team athletes completed an online, anonymous survey that assessed reported experiences of maltreatment (psychological, physical, sexual harm and neglect), and mental health indicators of well-being, eating disorders and self-harming behaviours. Results: All forms of maltreatment had a significant, positive correlation with eating disorder and self-harming behaviours, and a negative correlation with well-being. The relationships between maltreatment and mental health indicators differed based on identity characteristics of the athletes. Conclusions: Further work is needed on the prevention and intervention of maltreatment in sport to reduce the behaviours associated with negative health outcomes.
Background: A challenge in safeguarding children from interpersonal violence (IV) in sport is the reliance on self-disclosures and a limited understanding of the frequency, barriers to and process of disclosures of IV. Methods: Through a mixed-methods design, combining survey and interviews, we explored the frequencies of childhood disclosures of experiences of IV in Australian community sport as well as who children disclosed to and how the interaction unfolded. Results: Those who experienced peer violence disclosed at the highest frequency (35%), followed by coach (27%) or parent (13%) perpetrated IV. A parent/carer was most often the adult that the child disclosed to. Interviews highlighted how the normalisation of violence influenced all aspects of the disclosure and elements of stress buffering (normalising or rationalising) particularly underpinned the disclosure interaction. Conclusions: Policies and practices should explicitly identify all forms of IV in sport as prohibited conduct; education and intervention initiatives should target parents as first responders to disclosures.
Introduction: Sports psychiatry is a developing field whose focus is the diagnosis, treatment, and management of mental illness in sports team members. Participation in elite sports can compromise mental health as psychiatric symptoms and disorders are often unrecognized until players experience performance failures, injury, or interpersonal concerns. Despite the growing recognition of psychiatric illness in sports, sports psychiatry is yet to be widely practiced in athlete healthcare management. Methods: We conducted a search on relevant publications on sports psychiatry and mental health in elite athletes. Results: Numerous papers detailed mental health statistics in elite athletes as well as outlined the development of sports psychiatry with respect to healthcare management. The papers describe cultural barriers to athlete mental health treatment include stigma, low mental health literacy, adverse mental health treatment experiences, busy schedules, and cultural/religious factors. Modifiable systemic factors include conflicts of interest for team clinicians caused by dual loyalty to sports franchises, and power relations encompassing intra-team hierarchies that prevent both help-seeking behaviors and the disclosure of harassment. Conclusion: The proposed model recommends that sports leagues and tournament organizations hire sports psychiatrists to monitor the standard of care provided within each sports franchise as a quality control initiative to incentivize sports franchises to offer the highest-level of healthcare, combating conflicts of interest and harassment. The conceptual model recommends each sports franchise integrate sports psychiatrists onsite with elite sports team members with the long-term goal of achieving SAMHSA’s full integration model pending available funding and sports culture shifts.
May 2023 – August 2023
Victims of child sexual abuse (CSA) are a heterogeneous population. Several characteristics may influence the outcomes associated with this adverse childhood experience, including personal (e.g. age) and CSA characteristics (e.g. relationship to the perpetrator). This study relied on a person-centered approach to account for this heterogeneity and focused on adolescent boys, an understudied population. Data were drawn from a representative sample of high school students aged 14 to 18 years old in Quebec, Canada. A total of 3.9% (n = 138) of boys reported CSA. Various CSA characteristics (severity, relationship to the perpetrator, and number of events) were used as indicators to derive classes. A four-class solution emerged from the latent class analysis: CSA in a sports context (6%), intrafamilial CSA (8%), extrafamilial CSA (52%) and multiple CSA (34%). The multiple CSA profile included boys who were sexually abused in multiple situations by different perpetrators and who were victims of acts involving penetration. The exploration of correlates associated with class membership revealed that adolescent boys included in the multiple CSA profile were distinguished by higher rates of delinquent behaviors and alcohol and drug use. They were more likely than members of other latent classes to belong to sexual minorities. This exploratory study sheds light on sexually victimized adolescent boys and the deleterious consequences that may affect them, particularly boys who have experienced multiple CSA events. We conclude that prevention efforts should focus on the demystification of sexual trauma among boys and on using trauma-informed care approaches for adolescent externalizing behaviors.
Research shows that athletes across levels and sports have been subjected to maltreatment with non-sexualised forms such as psychological abuse and neglect found to be the most common. With the normalisation of many of these forms of abuse occurring in sports, researchers have called for the ‘safeguarding’ of athletes to focus on prevention through evidence-based education. Yet evidence-based education that teaches about abuse remains limited in the research literature. Further, an examination of educational theory, design considerations and the implications of such applications when applied to learning contexts in sport remains scarce. This paper is the first generated from a project where an online athlete-and coach-led abuse education program was designed, implemented, and evaluated with the purpose of teaching children through to adults (coaches, athletes) about non-sexualised types of abuse, along with the effects of such maltreatment. This paper provides an overview of the educational theory and design considerations, namely Ivor Goodson and Scherto Gill’s narrative pedagogy and the use of culturally responsive and culturally relevant content, with challenges and possibilities of these applications outlined. Recommendations are then made, based on facilitator and participant feedback which may assist sporting organisations and child protection agencies worldwide when designing, developing, revising, or implementing their own education programs to teach about abuse.
December 2022 – April 2023
Despite widespread anecdotal accounts of coaches’ emotional abuse in intercollegiate sports, empirical literature is lacking. To address this gap, the present exploratory study was designed to explore how former intercollegiate student-athletes interpreted experiences of emotionally abusive coaching. Former female NCAA and NJCAA student-athletes (N = 14; Mage = 25.3 years) took part in semi-structured, in-depth interviews. Data were interpreted using a constructivist grounded theory approach. The final product of the research was a three-stage grounded theory explaining how former student-athletes interpret their experiences of emotional abuse over time organized into sections on antecedents to abuse, experiences and actions within the abusive program, and after the abuse. Implications for this work include the idea that individual student-athletes may have different experiences and recollections of coaches’ emotionally abusive behavior and that intercollegiate student-athletes are able to discern between “hard, but fair” coaching practices and emotionally abusive coaching practices.
Research exploring athletes and coaches’ perceptions of parent involvement in youth sport has demonstrated the presence of maladaptive parent involvement in youth sport. This research has provided insights into inappropriate parenting practices displayed in the youth sport environment. However, representative of the broader sport parenting literature, data has been primarily gleaned from sports such as tennis and football. In a bid to diversify participant populations, the present study sought to examine female youth golfers’ views of unsupportive parental behaviors within the competitive youth golf environment. Fourteen online synchronous focus groups were conducted with 61 female youth golfers in the specializing (n = 27) and investment (n = 34) stages of development, recruited from seven countries across three continents (Australia, Canada, England, Finland, Ireland, New Zealand, and Scotland). Reflexive thematic analysis revealed three higher-order categories of unsupportive parental behaviors: Emotional Ill-Treatment; Physical Ill-Treatment; and Pressurizing Behavior. Parenting practices consistent with emotional ill-treatment (e.g., verbal ill-treatment) have been previously discussed within the sport parenting literature, however the presence of physical ill-treatment displayed by parents toward child-athletes has not been commonly reported. The present research provides novel insights into athletes’ perceptions of these maladaptive behaviors, and demonstrates that, similar to other youth sports, unsupportive parental behaviors are evident in the youth golf environment. The findings of the current research further reinforce the need for reporting mechanisms for allegations of abuse within youth sport, continued stakeholder education, the development of safeguarding cultures, and also the need to explore parents’ experiences of exhibiting maladaptive involvement. Lay summary: Female youth golfers’ views of unsupportive parental behaviors in the specializing and investment stages of development were explored. Three higher order categories of unsupportive parental behaviors in competitive youth golf were identified: Emotional Ill-Treatment; Physical Ill-Treatment; and Pressurizing Behavior.
Violence in sport is a major social issue generating great interest in research over the last 10 years. Studies to date highlight various forms and manifestations of violence in the lives of teenagers practicing individual or team sports, in competitive and recreational contexts. Although allegations of sexual violence involving coaches most often reach media attention, psychological and physical violence involving teammates, parents, and coaches are also prevalent. While profiles of offenders in the sport context have contributed to a better understanding of the issue, similar profiles need to be elaborated for young victims to delineate varying degrees of risk, adaptation, and needs. Latent class analyses were conducted to empirically identify different patterns of exposure to violence in sport from a sample of 1057 athletes aged 14–17 years. Teenagers participated in an online survey assessing their experiences of violence using the Violence Toward Athletes Questionnaire. Results highlighted three different profiles of victimization in the sport context: (a) a non-victimized profile constituting only 37% of the sample; (b) a profile representing 52% of the sample that is mainly exposed to psychological violence by teammates, coaches, and parents; and (c) a “poly-victimized” profile, representing 10% of the sample, that is exposed to all forms of violence at the hands of various perpetrators (teammates, coaches, and parents). The identified profiles were compared according to different indicators of sport practice, athletic behaviors, and mental health. This study delineates the influence of single and multiple forms of violence and its compound consequences on mental health and sport-related behaviors, thus portraying various degrees of need for tailored prevention and intervention measures.
There are growing levels of abuse toward match officials in sport as well as general problems of their recruitment and retention. Purpose: This study analyzes the role that physical and nonphysical abuse has on association football referees’ intentions to quit and their personal well-being. Methods: Drawing on pooled survey data of association football referees from the UK and Canada, this paper employs probit, ordinary least squares, and treatment effects regression analyses to explore the casual relationship between the physical and nonphysical abuse faced by referees, their intention to quit and their well-being. Results: Although physical abuse is less common than nonphysical abuse both affect the intention to quit and well-being of officials. Moreover, those that do not contemplate quitting also face reductions in their well-being. Conclusion: The research recommends a zero-tolerance approach to all forms of abuse of officials in sport and identifies that organizations have a duty of care for the well-being of their officials.
Abstract not available
Although sexual harassment and abuse in youth sport have received increasing research attention worldwide, less is known about youth coaches’ perceptions of sexually inappropriate behaviors and intimate relationships with athletes. The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine youth sport coaches’ perceptions of behaviors that can lead to potential sexual harassment and abuse, as well as to understand how coaches perceive coach-athlete sexual relationships. A cross-sectional survey was completed by 200 male coaches from various U.S. youth sport programs. Overall, a majority of coaches indicated behaviors associated with sexist comments and verbal/physical advances as sexually inappropriate. There was, however, a lack of consensus regarding what constitutes sexually inappropriate behaviors when the behavior was instruction-related/contextually dependent. Results were mixed regarding the perceptions of coach-athlete sexual relationships, with a notable number of coaches agreeing that sexual intimacies with young athletes (17 years or younger) are not always harmful and should not be prohibited. Based on a regression analysis, white coaches were more likely to exhibit negative perceptions about coach-athlete sexual relationships compared to ethnically diverse coaches. Overall, these findings warrant the development or reevaluation of policies and interventions aimed at preventing sexual harassment and abuse in the youth sport environment. Continued research is needed to better understand youth sport coaches as the perpetrators of sexual harassment and abuse.
This study explores the influence of individual and relational predictors on bullying perpetration/victimization among semi-professional team sport players in North Cyprus. Three variables reflect on an individual’s level characteristics (e.g., gender, age, and nationality), and another one, representing the relational level factor (e.g., negative coaching behavior). The current paper obtained data from athletes through convenient sampling technique and online survey utilization. A total of 190 sports players with an average age of 24.77 (SD = 4.52) participated. All participants were club athletes from 16 diverse nations, competing in four different sports disciplines: football, volleyball, handball, and basketball. Hierarchical regression analysis was implemented to evaluate the above underlying linkages. It was found that age, nationality, and the coach’s negative personal rapport significantly predicted bullying victimization dynamics among athletes. Bullying perpetration was only predicted by negative personal rapport with the coach but not by any of the individual level predictors. The moderation analysis showed that negative personal rapport with the coach significantly predicted the level of bullying victimization, the age and the nationality of the athlete moderated the relationship between the negative personal rapport and bullying victimization. In other words, the negative personal rapport had a higher effect on bullying victimization for the younger athletes and for international ones. Such findings have the potential to shape the base for further ongoing works, which could underline the critical demand for more emphasis and analysis of nationality, gender, age, and coach’s negative rapport on bullying perpetration or victimization. The significance of the study’s findings, its limits, and potential paths for further interpersonal violence research are addressed.
Background: From qualitative studies with survivors of sexual violence, it is known that two important risk factors for sexual violence are unequal power relations and strong hierarchies; the concept of an empowering climate works against these risk factors and might thus serve as a factor in preventing experiences of sexual violence among athletes. The aim of the current study was to examine the relationship between an empowering climate within a sport group and experiences of sexual violence. Methods: In total, 644 athletes took part in an online survey measuring their perceptions of the empowering climate within their training group and their observations and experiences of sexual violence within the same group. MANOVAs were used to examine differences in perception of the empowering climate between those athletes who had observed or experienced sexual violence and those who had not. Results: The results reveal that athletes who had experienced or observed sexual violence rated the empowering climate subfactors within their training group as lower and the disempowering climate subfactors as higher. Conclusions: This study supports findings from prior qualitative studies and hints that a climate high in empowerment and low in disempowerment might be a protective factor against sexual violence in sport groups.
Transgender athletes face discrimination based on negative societal attitudes in many life arenas; they particularly confront prejudice in the arena of sport. This study examined the attitudes of some of the most influential people in an athlete’s life, coaches. The study examined coach gender, conformity to masculinity norms (particularly hegemonic masculinity norms of power over women and heterosexual self-presentation), and level of physical contact in sport as related to negative attitudes toward transgender athletes. In light of the recent spate of antitransgender legislation focusing on transwomen athletes, attitudes toward directionality of transition within transgender athletes were also investigated. Data were obtained from 156 coaches across the United States, who coached a variety of sports at different levels of competition. The findings indicated that stronger adherence to masculine norms was associated with stronger negative attitudes toward transgender athletes. Male coaches were more likely than female coaches to have negative attitudes toward transgender athletes although this relationship was not moderated by adherence to hegemonic masculinity norms of power over women and heterosexual self-presentation. Coaches’ attitudes toward transgender athletes varied based on the direction of the transition, with transgender women athletes facing more prejudice. No difference was found between coaches of collision, contact, and non-contact sports on their attitudes toward transgender athletes. Implications from these results include using targeted interventions toward coaches and athletic administrators to reduce transgender athlete prejudice and promote inclusivity.
The current article reports on the second large-scale prevalence study on transgressive behavior in sport in the Netherlands, and is a follow up of an earlier, comparable prevalence study in 2015. Using a dedicated and customized online questionnaire, approximately 4000 adults who met the inclusion criteria (18 to 50 years old and have played sports in an organized context during childhood in the Netherlands) were surveyed with respect to their experiences of childhood psychological, physical, and sexual transgressive behavior while playing sports. The survey showed that 71.7% experienced some form of transgressive behavior as a child, in which 48.6% of these events also made an impact (in other words, was significant at the time it took place). The degree of impact the event made is also related to the severity of the event. Severe emotional transgression events occurred in 22% of the youth athletes, severe physical assault events in 12.7%, and severe sexual assault events occurred in 6.9% of the youth athletes. Disabled athletes, and those competing at national and international levels, report more experiences of transgressive behavior in sport. The results are consistent with former research and indicate the need for structural attention to create a safe sports climate.
Research has shown that athletes are divided in their assessment of possibly sexualising behaviours from coaches towards athletes. How they arrive at their conclusions has received less attention—yet it is crucial to understand as a basis for safeguarding measures. Using video-elicitation focus group interviews with sport students, we zoomed in on different types of ‘grey area’ situations involving coaches and athletes. We drew on social script theory to highlight the cultural tools sport students use to distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable coaching behaviours. Our analyses showed that the students drew on two types of scripts in their interpretative work: (1) sport scripts, denoting templates for ‘normal’ coach–athlete interactions (typically with a performance and/or caring rationale), and (2) sexual harassment scripts, encompassing beliefs and expectations of how sexual transgressions play out and among whom. We discuss how the students evaluated concrete grey area situations by comparing and contrasting them with both scripts. In these assessments, the students relied on cues and clues from the portrayed interactions, including the gender of the coach and athlete and knowledge about the specific sport setting. Our analyses demonstrate how views about sexual harassment in sport relate to the specificities of the sport setting and the gendered social dynamics in the situation.
Introduction: In recent years, evidence has been accumulating that interpersonal violence (IV) in sports coaching situations has detrimental psychopathological effects. IV victimization not only produces traditional adverse symptoms, but also impairs psychological functioning related to self-evaluation and interpersonal relationships in personality development. We designed this study to explore the psychopathological damage caused by IV experiences in Japanese sports coaching situations from the perspective of PTSD and moral injury (MI). Methods: We conducted a Web-based aggregate survey using convenience sampling. Japanese university undergraduates (N=196, age range 18-23 years) participated in the study. We used hierarchical multiple regression and simple slope analyses to examine quantitative data after controlling for covariates. Results: There was a significant main effect of experiencing psychological violence and MI on several PTSD symptoms, including intrusion, avoidance, and hyperarousal. In addition, a high frequency of experiencing psychological violence enhanced intrusion and hyperarousal symptoms only when causes MI. Conclusion: These results are consistent with previous studies that identified IV-related mental health harms. The result also indicate that the damage caused by IV in sports contexts is complex and aggravated by the deep intrinsic and moral emotional wounds. The primary findings of this study are crucial for protecting athlete’ human rights, further enhancing sports leadership education, and for proactive consideration of preventive intervention strategies.
The purpose of this study was to explore a biopsychosocial profile for experiencing sexual harassment and abuse in sports. A qualitative approach was used; data were collected from semi-structured in-depth interviews covering seven cases of sexual harassment and abuse in sports in the Netherlands. The interview transcripts were analysed and aligned with the biopsychosocial model. The results reveal biological (i.e., aged under 18, sex, and sexual orientation), psychological (i.e., high degree of naivety, altruism and agreeableness, low self-esteem, perfectionism, emotional or disorders) and social factors (i.e., poor or negative relationship with parents, social pressure to perform, incest at home, social isolation, elite sports and too much power of a single trainer/coach) that can contribute to the risk of experiencing sexual harassment and abuse in sports. These findings provide important directions for prevention and recognition in sports practice and future research.
Background: The popularity of using the advice of a personal trainer is increasing in Poland and currently most gyms offer the possibility of training under the supervision of a professional. Personal trainers present a multifaceted nature into physical activity and become their clients’ guides in achieving sporting goals. Physical trainers also work in sports clubs and supervise the training of people professionally involved in sport. Aim: Given the professional role that they play, this article aimed to analyze the knowledge and attitudes of personal trainers towards using prohibited measures to improve performance in sport, as well as counteraction measures. Methods: The study used a questionnaire created by the authors containing closed, semi-open, and open questions. Results: The results of the presented research indicate that most physical trainers and students educated in this field have a negative attitude towards the use of prohibited measures that increase performance but they noticed that doping was common in sport by 88.51% respondents. In the group of personal trainers, the majority (87.14%) admitted that good results in sport could be achieved without the use of doping. They stated that it was unfair (25%), contrary to the fair play principle—16%, while over 11% indicated this as cheating. Only 6% of people pointed out that it was legally prohibited and 3% that it was harmful. These results show that 10.13% of all respondents believe that the use of doping is a necessity to achieve very good results in sport. Conclusions: The availability of doping substances is statistically correlated with the question of persuading to use doping in both groups of trainers and students and some people justify the use of doping. The research proved that the personal trainers’ level of knowledge on doping is still insufficient.
2022 – January to November
Sports officials (e.g., referees, umpires, judges) can experience distress from a multitude of sources, including episodes of verbal and physical abuse from spectators, coaches, and athletes. Little is known about the impact of this abuse on mental health (MH) outcomes and intentions to quit, however. As such, the primary aims of this study were to survey the prevalence and frequency of abuse in sports officials and to examine relationships between abuse, distress, and subsequent MH and intentions to quit outcomes. Survey data were collected from 438 Gaelic Games match officials. Of these, 94.29% and 23.06% had experienced verbal and physical abuse respectively during their career. Verbal abuse was mostly experienced a couple of times a season (reported by 43.83% of officials) or every couple of games (31.48%), whereas physical abuse was predominantly experienced once or twice in a career (85.15%). Structural equation modelling was used to assess three alternative models that proposed the relationship between experiences of abuse, and MH and intentions to quit outcomes to be either 1) direct, 2) indirect, fully mediated by distress, or 3) both direct and indirect, partially mediated by distress. For verbal abuse, only the direct and indirect effects model achieved acceptable fit and significantly explained variance in mental wellbeing (9.4%), anxiety (15.2%), depression (15.6%), and intentions to quit (19.1%). For physical abuse, though higher distress was associated with poorer MH and greater intentions to quit, none of the models fully explained the relationships between all variables. These findings demonstrate, for the first time, relationships between abuse, subsequent distress, and MH outcomes. We highlight the urgent need to develop evidence-based psychological interventions to tackle abuse, manage conflict, and support the MH needs of sports officials.
This chapter will explore the additional challenges that are met by an elite athlete with a disability when competing in high-performance sport. Supporting a person with a disability in a high-performance training structure can often present issues that National Governing Bodies neglect to consider-for example, the impact of funding on disability allowances, mediating medication, accessing health care in new towns and finding fully accessible housing. The majority of Paralympic sports operate from elite training centres, and for some athletes with disabilities the physical, psychological and emotional difficulties experienced through ‘becoming’ an elite para-athlete can be overwhelming – especially if this becoming takes them away from trusted and relied upon social and medical networks. This chapter provides significant insight into the wellbeing needs of the Paralympic athletes, is framed in consideration with various sociological models of disability and details examples of best practice for how sporting organizations can ensure the structures and systems to support para-athletes are successfully in place from the beginning their elite journey through to the end.
College student-athletes are one subgroup of college students at risk for unhealthy relationship behaviors. Despite this, research on student-athletes dating behaviors is limited, and what research does exist pertains exclusively to Division I athletes, focusing on male student-athletes as perpetrators. While attempts have been made to mitigate instances of dating violence and promote healthy relationships, these interventions are education-based and not tailored to the specific strengths and challenges of studentathletes. In addition, the efficacy of these preexisting interventions has not yet been evaluated. The current study represents stage 1 of the NIH Stage Model for Behavioral Intervention Development and evaluates the feasibility and acceptability of a recently developed, data-driven intervention entitled Supporting Prevention in Relationships for Teams (SPoRT). We hypothesized that student-athletes will find SPoRT both feasible and acceptable, as this intervention takes a skills-based approach and student-athletes were consulted in the development of SPoRT content and delivery.
DOI non available.
Book description
In many Western nations, community sport coaches occupy a central role in supporting the physical health, mental wellbeing, and wider social development of individuals and communities. However, there is no existing academic textbook that examines the policy contexts in which their work is located or, indeed, the challenges and opportunities that are an inherent feature of their everyday practice.
Bringing together an international team of leading researchers in sport policy, sport development, sport pedagogy, and sport coaching, as well as some of the best emerging talents, this book is the first to critically consider a range of policy and practice issues directly connected to community sport coaching.
Comprehensive, timely, and cutting-edge, no other text brings together in one place such a depth and breadth of scholarly material addressing this important field of endeavour. This book is an essential resource for educators, students, practitioners, and policy makers concerned with community sport coaching globally.
DOI non available.
Emergent research has investigated the impact of abuse on the decision of match officials to leave their sport. The existing literature is largely descriptive and qualitative. Based on large surveys of football referees in France and the Netherlands, this paper investigates the factors that are associated with the verbal and physical abuse of the referees and also the association of this abuse with the intentions of referees to quit officiating. The associations are investigated by estimating the marginal effects from bivariate probit and probit models respectively. Bivariate probit estimation reveals a strong correlation between each form of abuse. Both, unsurprisingly, are also positively associated with years of experience of referees. Probit estimation reveals that both forms of abuse, as well as intimidation from refereeing certain teams, are associated with an increased consideration of referees to quit. As increased intention to quit is also associated with the experience of the referee it is likely that the effect of abuse on referee considerations of quitting increase through time. The main conclusions are that the alternative forms of abuse are not zero-sum and both should be targeted by governing bodies to reduce the decline in the number of football referees. The data show that support of referees, for example through mentoring, can offset stated intentions to quit.
Denunciations of child sexual abuse (CSA) in the sport context have been increasing in the last decades. Studies estimate that between 14 and 29% of athletes have been victim of at least one form of sexual violence in sport before the age of 18. However, studies suggest that many do not disclose their experience of CSA during childhood. This finding is alarming since studies have shown that the healing process usually starts with disclosure. Moreover, little is known about the healing process of CSA experienced in the sport context. The aim of the study is to present a single case study of a CSA in sport to better understand the global experience over time from the perspective of the athlete. A narrative inquiry approach was adopted. Three non-structured interviews were conducted with the participant. Three pathways in the survivor journey have been identified through inductive thematic analysis: (a) pathway to understanding, (b) pathway to disclosure, and (c) pathway to healing. These pathways represent distinct processes but are intertwined as they are dynamic and iterative. Indeed, the survivor explained how she had been, and is still, going back and forth between them. Results are consistent with those found in the literature on CSA in the general population. It suggests that theoretical models of CSA in the general population could be applied to CSA in sport. Practical implications include a need for education and clearer boundaries in the coach-athlete relationship. Sport stakeholders also need to be better equipped to recognize the signs of sexual violence in sport. Our results indicate that qualitative research could be a potential avenue to help victims heal from CSA. It gives them the chance to talk about and make sense of their abuse in a safe space. Finally, our results demonstrate the importance of reviewing the current justice system for victims. It should be based on a trauma-informed approach that places the victim at the center of the judicial process.
In the 2016 International Olympic Committee Consensus Statement on harassment and abuse, it was outlined that psychological abuse in sport research has been heavily focused on the coach-athlete relationship resulting in a lack of research on other members of the athletes’ support system such as their ‘entourage.’ Researchers of abuse have further noted that psychological abuse remains relatively underexplored in comparison to other types of athlete abuses (e.g. sexual abuse). As psychological abuse is one of the most common types of abuse occurring in sporting contexts, it has been flagged as an urgent safeguarding concern. Psychological abuse can be enacted in different ways with many associated behaviours. The present study explored one under-researched issue shown to be entrenched in sport culture-‘body shaming’-and how it constitutes psychological abuse. We also focused on the role of the athlete entourage (i.e. people associated with the athlete) in relation to psychological abuse through the body shaming of athletes. Using thematic analysis, three female athletes’ stories showed how they were subjected to psychological abuse from members of their entourage when their bodies failed to meet socio-cultural expectations (i.e. too fat, not ‘slim to win’). While it was not the central focus of our research, the athletes also explained how they were subjected to physical abuse and physical neglect from entourage members when they were perceived to be overweight or too fat. The athlete entourage members found to be perpetrators of abuse and physical neglect included the coach, the parent, the partner, and the manager. This research provides novel insight into how abuse is circulating through sporting contexts, and in so doing, generates knowledge for prevention and intervention initiatives in sport.
Research question: Match official abuse (MOA) in team sports has become a prominent issue within sport management; the effects of MOA on the safety, wellbeing and retention of officials has led to a growth of academic enquiry. The present review aimed to develop a thorough understanding of MOA through the perspective of sport officials from various sports. Research methods: The authors conducted a systematic literature review on match officials’ experiences of abuse. Research databases (PsychInfo, Scopus, PubMed, Science Direct, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science) were screened for peer-reviewed research published between 1999 and 2022. Sixty studies of mixed research designs were retained and evaluated using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT). Results and Findings: Qualitative synthesis of the results identified five key themes of empirical findings pertaining to the nature and prevalence of abuse; the effects of abuse on performance, wellbeing and retention; methods of interpersonal conflict management; facilitators of abuse; and match officials’ attitudes towards current support and intervention. Results show that MOA effects individuals at all levels of competition and can adversely affect the performance and wellbeing of officials. Implications: The findings are used to identify relevant sport management issues and the authors discuss potential policy outcomes for reducing the prevalence and adverse effects of MOA.
Objective: To assess the mental health and experience of sport-related harassment and abuse of elite aquatic athletes and to analyze it in relation to gender and discipline. Design: Cross-sectional study using an anonymous survey. Setting: The FINA World Championships 2019. Participants: Registered athletes in the disciplines of swimming, diving, high diving, water polo, artistic swimming, and open water swimming. Interventions: Athletes completed an online or paper-based questionnaire. Main outcome measures: The main outcome measures included screening for depression (10-item version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale revised), eating disorders (Brief Eating Disorders in Athletes Questionnaire), the subjective need for psychotherapeutic support, and the experience of sport-related harassment and/or abuse. Results: A quarter (24.6%) of the 377 responding athletes were classified as depressed and 2.5% as having an eating disorder. More than 40% of the athletes stated that they wanted or needed psychotherapeutic support. Fifty-one athletes (14.9%) had experienced harassment/abuse in sport themselves, and 31 (9%) had witnessed it in another athlete. The experiences of harassment and abuse ranged from unwanted comments about body or appearance (40.2%) to rewards in sport for sexual favors (2.5%) and rape (0.3%). Athletes who had experienced harassment/abuse in sport themselves had higher average scores for depression and eating disorders, and more of them felt they needed psychotherapeutic support. Up to a third would not talk or report to anybody if they saw or experienced harassment/abuse, and less than 20% would talk to an official for help. Conclusion: Targeted initiatives are required to address mental health issues and harassment and abuse in sport in the FINA aquatic disciplines.
The South Korean elite sport system is facing a wide range of problems that account for the high dropout rate among college student-athletes. However, research on dropout rates of student-athletes is so far been limited, which amplifies the actual voices of this group, their dropout experiences, and their challenges, while they were in the career transition process. Therefore, this study used a critical phenomenological approach as a primary methodological lens to gather information on 15 formal Korean male college student-athletes on dropping out of team sports, exploring their life challenges during their career transitions out of the sport. The result showed two main thematic categories with sub-themes, which include (1) factors affecting burning out and terminating athletic careers: (a) injury and failure of rehabilitation and (b) bullying and abandonment; and (2) factors hindering post-retirement career advancement: (a) prejudice and exclusion and (b) absence of mentors and counselors. This study used Social Cognitive Career Theory to explore the participants’ progression through specific interventions that engage and empower. Overall, the current study calls upon researchers, counselors, and administrators to continue exploring advocacy efforts with this population to alter policy and practice.
This article aims to analyse the relationship between the bullying aggressor and bullying victim profile related to practising or not practising sport in adolescents living in southern Spain. The research includes male and female participants aged between 12 and 16 years in different secondary schools in the provinces of Andalusia, Ceuta and Melilla in the period between February 2022 and June 2022. The study aims to extend the existing scientific, theoretical and empirical knowledge on the influence of playing sport or not on disruptive bullying attitudes in adolescents. To this end, two initial hypotheses were designed; the first hypothesises that bullying victim behaviours are associated with future bullying aggressor behaviours when practising sport; and the second states that victim behaviours are associated with future bullying aggressor behaviours when not practising sport. To verify them, SPSS software was used for the preliminary analysis of the scale and sociodemographic profile. Additionally, the study is based on structural equation modelling methodology and variance-based methods employing SmartPLS v3.3 software. The results show the importance of sport or physical activity to reduce the chances of carrying out bullying actions on other peers and/or classmates. Therefore, it is considered necessary to prevent bullying in the classroom by implementing sports intervention programmes in educational centres.
Childhood sport participation is associated with physical, social, and mental health benefits, which are more likely to be realized if the sport environment is safe. However, our understanding of children’s experience of psychological, physical, and sexual violence in community sport in Australia is limited. The aims of this study were to provide preliminary evidence on the extent of experiences of violence during childhood participation in Australian community sport and to identify common perpetrators of and risk factors for violence. The Violence Towards Athletes Questionnaire (VTAQ) was administered online to a convenience sample of Australian adults (>18 years), retrospectively reporting experiences of violence during childhood community sport. Frequencies of experience of violence were calculated and Chi-square tests were conducted to determine differences between genders. In total, there were 886 respondents included in the analysis. Most survey respondents were women (63%) and about a third were men (35%). About 82% of respondents experienced violence in sport as a child. Psychological violence was most prevalent (76%), followed by physical (66%) and sexual (38%) violence. Peers perpetrated the highest rates of psychological violence (69%), and the rates of physical and psychological violence by coaches (both >50%) were also high. Age, sexual orientation, disability, and hours of weekly sport participation as a child were all associated with childhood experience of violence in sport. The rates of interpersonal violence against children in sport were high. This novel data on perpetrators of the violence and the risk factors for experiencing violence provides further context to inform safeguarding strategies in sport. A national prevalence study is recommended to advance our understanding of the childhood experiences of violence in Australian sport.
Some studies report that the sport context increases the risk of exposure to sexual violence for athletes. In contrast, others indicate a protective effect of sport participation against sexual violence, particularly among varsity athletes. Studies of sexual violence towards varsity athletes are limited by their failure to include control groups and various known risk factors such as age, graduate level, gender and sexual identity, disability status, international and Indigenous student status, and childhood sexual abuse. The purpose of the present study is to fill in these gaps to determine whether varsity athletes are at greater risk than non-athletes of sexual violence towards them or whether, on the contrary, involvement in a varsity sport is coherent with the Sport Protection Hypothesis. Data for this article come from the ESSIMU study (Enquête sur la Sexualité, la Sécurité et les Interactions en Milieu Universitaire), a broad survey of students, professors, and other employees at six francophone universities regarding sexual violence on university campuses. A total of 6,485 students with complete data on sexual violence, athlete status, and gender were included in the study. From this total, 267 participants identified themselves as varsity athletes. Data were analyzed using a series of logistic regressions on each form of violence using athlete status as a predictor and characteristics associated with sexual violence victimization or distinguishing between varsity athletes and non-athletes as confounding variables. When considering all confounding variables in the regression analyses on four yearly incidence rates of sexual violence, the results revealed that being a varsity athlete did not significantly increase the risk of exposure to sexual violence at university. All considered other variables were more significant predictors of the past year’s risk of sexual violence victimization than athlete status was.
The aim of the present study was to examine the associations between interpersonal violence (IV) experienced in the context of sport by teenagers and three mental health outcomes: self-esteem, psychological distress, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. A convenience sample of 1055 French-Canadian athletes between the ages of 14 and 17 who were participating in an organized sport was recruited to participate in an online survey. Results showed that psychological violence and neglect as well as sexual violence were independently related to lower self-esteem while physical, psychological/neglect, and sexual violence were all independently related to higher psychological distress and PTSD symptoms. Early intervention programs for athletes that experience IV is critical as it may help prevent the development of subsequent mental health issues.
This chapter defines athlete welfare as well as a range of related terms. Athlete welfare is a broad concept which encompasses a range of issues. It fundamentally concerns promoting the health and wellbeing of an athlete. The researchers manipulated key information within the scenarios to assess the impact on perceptions. A global study was conducted to evaluate the impact of working towards the International Safeguards for Children in Sport. Half of this sample were organisations who worked directly with children. Self-audits demonstrated that these organisations had progressed from having 45% to 64% of the safeguards fully in place. The coach-athlete relationship is a close working relationship and central to an athlete’s performance. Debates related to athlete welfare in sport have often portrayed that a choice has to be made between protecting an athlete’s welfare and achieving peak performance.
Bullying is a global issue that, beyond school, is present in different social contexts, such as sport environments. The main objective of this study was to get to know the experiences of victims of bullying in sport throughout their youth sport training. Semi-structured interviews to four Spanish women and seven Spanish men were carried out, within an age range of 17–27 (Mage = 21 years, SD = 3.69). The following main themes were established by means of a hierarchical content analysis: (a) “bullying characterization,” (b) “dealing with bullying,” and (c) “consequences of bullying.” The results show the presence of physical, verbal and social bullying in the sport context, with the changing room being the space where this type of behavior is most frequently developed. Most victims show an internal attribution (self-blame) for the bullying event, related to their motor skills and their personal physical and psychological characteristics. Double victimization can be observed, at the sport club and at the educational center. Passive strategies are used to deal with the situation, while little support is shown by sport agents (teammates and coaches). The victims, as a consequence of the bullying experience, suffer from short and long-term negative effects on a psychosocial level. The study highlights the necessity to design and implement programs focused on the prevention, detection and intervention of bullying for sport organizations, bearing in mind all the agents that make them up (coaches, management teams, families, and players). Furthermore, the importance of promoting the creation of safe sport environments, free from any kind of violence, is emphasized.
Background: Interpersonal conflicts occur in any kind of social relation, including the field of sports. Proper emotional management can improve athletes’ well-being, coexistence, and performance. This study presents the initial results of the gamified emotional education program Happy Sport in a sample of athletes in the field of non-formal education. Methods: The study sample consists of 194 athletes from the benjamín and alevín categories (3rd- to 6th-grade primary school children). A quasi-experimental pre-intervention and post-intervention design with a control group is followed using the Games and Emotions Scale (GES), Social Support Scale, Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (ERQ-CA), and Bullying in Sports Questionnaire. Results: Statistically significant differences were found across participants in the experimental group between the pre- and post-intervention evaluations for the variables satisfaction and bullying. An analysis of the competencies related to emotion regulation revealed significant results for the experimental group for both scales (cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression). Conclusions: The results show that after a training session with the gamified software Happy Sport, children’s satisfaction increased and bullying levels decreased. Changes in cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression may also be explained by the training received.
Objectives: Interpersonal violence is an increasingly recognised risk of sport participation and causally linked to negative physical and mental health outcomes. Para athletes from low- and middle-income countries may be at highest risk of physical, psychological, sexual and neglect-related violence due to various factors; however, their perceptions of these abusive behaviours are unknown. This study examined the perceptions and experiences of abuse in para athletes from three lower resourced countries: Ghana, India and Brazil. Methods: Qualitative data from semistructured focus group interviews conducted with 26 individuals were collected to explore characteristics of abuse observed, navigated and experienced by para athletes. The framework method for multidisciplinary qualitative research guided data analysis. Results: Athletes identified a wide range of abusive behaviours they experienced within and outside of sport, including psychological, emotional, physical, sexual and neglect-related violence, which operated on both interpersonal and systemic levels. Most athletes described three less easily recognised forms of abuse in greater detail and more frequently than others: financial abuse, neglect and disability stigma. Conclusion: It is important to hear directly from athletes with diverse experiences and backgrounds and to integrate their insights and priorities into sport safeguarding policies, programmes and interventions. Understanding the requirements and challenges of para athletes and para sport is needed to achieve safe, equitable and inclusive sport. As new insights from diverse sport settings are added to the evidence base, globally balanced, athlete-generated and locally relevant preventative strategies can better protect all athletes.
Within the elite environment, female gymnasts have been exposed to various forms of maltreatment. While the effects of child maltreatment have documented physical and psychological consequences stemming into and throughout adulthood, no researchers in the sporting context have included neglect within their focus of athlete experiences. This study sought to provide an understanding of retired gymnasts’ maltreatment experiences, including both acts of commission (physical and emotional abuse) and omission (neglect), and the subsequent long-term psychological impacts from being part of the elite gymnastics culture. One semistructured interview (M = 96 min, SD = 46.62) was conducted with 12 retired International and National level women’s artistic gymnasts (Mage = 29 years, SD = 4.76). Participants reported being retired from the sport between 7 and 20 years (M = 12; SD = 4 years), with career lengths between 8 and 15 years (M = 11; SD = 2.1 years). Through reflexive thematic analysis three themes were constructed: what we went through; how it’s affecting us now; and will things ever change? Findings highlighted the multiple forms of maltreatment endured by gymnasts, had a prolonged psychological impact, including clinically diagnosed disorders, on their lives up to 20 years postretirement, lending initial support to attachment theory. We hope this understanding demonstrates the need to change the beliefs surrounding the culture and the relational coaching practices. Further, that effective provisions are implemented to both prevent the abuse from happening and support those gymnasts who have been affected both during and after their retirement from the sport.
The issue of sexual violence perpetrated by male athletes has garnered increased scholarly attention over the last three decades. Existing research, however, has focused largely on whether athletes are more prone to sexually violent attitudes or behavior than other groups, devoting minimal attention toward psychosocial factors within sport that actually underlie this issue. Even fewer studies have situated the problem of male athlete-perpetrated sexual violence (MASV) within the psychology of men and masculinities. To address some of these gaps, the current study explored how male athletes’ sexist and sexually violent attitudes toward women are influenced by their masculine norm conformity and exposure to vignettes depicting violent hazing practices. Two hundred and four NCAA Division I male athletes completed a measure of masculine norm conformity. Participants were then randomized into experimental conditions, exposing them to either one of three experimental vignettes depicting a violent or abusive hazing scenario (e.g., forced nudity, forced touch, or forced binge drinking) or a control vignette depicting a prosocial team-building activity. Results revealed no significant differences across conditions in subsequent reports of rape myth acceptance or sexism, and conformity to masculine norms mostly did not moderate relationships between hazing exposure and outcomes. However, for the full sample (i.e., controlling for hazing condition), greater conformity to the masculine norms of violence, power over women, being a sexual playboy, and heterosexual self-presentation all predicted higher levels of rape myth acceptance and sexism. Furthermore, exploratory analyses revealed that hazing conditions did have an impact on participants’ subsequent levels of state affect. Finally, noteworthy differences emerged across types of sport, whereby athletes participating in team and contact sports endorsed greater masculine norm adherence and higher levels of sexism than their counterparts. Limitations, future research directions, and implications for practice are discussed.
Traumatic events and their subsequent effects are highly variable, as individual differences and situational characteristics, as well as other environmental variables, influence how one experiences, processes, and heals or recovers from the experience. Athletes are vulnerable to experiencing traumatic events and major stressors just like the general population, and they have additional risks for trauma related to physical injury. Whether the traumatic event or experience occurred within or external to the sport context, the effects of trauma can affect an athlete’s mental health, athletic performance, and overall well-being. In this chapter, we briefly review definitions of trauma, identify potential sequela for athletes who experience different types of trauma, and examine aspects of sport culture and sport environments that relate to traumatic experiences and their aftermath. Several examples and references to professional athletes are included in the chapter to exemplify how trauma may unfold or impact an individual. We emphasize the importance of being aware of trauma and the potential consequences and trajectories in order to better serve and work with athletes.
In the context of sport, a growing body of research has reported the prevalence of violence against athletes, including sexual, physical, and psychological violence and neglect, experienced by both women and men in sport. Preliminary research has reported that gender-diverse individuals, specifically transgender athletes, may have a greater vulnerability to experiences of violence in sport, but this remains an under-researched population. In addition to limited research specifically on violence experienced by transgender athletes in sport, there is also only emerging research on virtual violence against athletes, with previous research on virtual violence in sporting spaces highlighting how online spaces are sites that can foster widespread hostility and violence. This study builds on previous research by examining discourses of virtual violence faced by transgender powerlifter, Mary Gregory, following her expulsion from the 100% Raw Powerlifting Federation. This research used a netnographic approach-an online ethnographic case study design. Data were collected from online news sources, as well as social media platforms, including Instagram, Twitter, and YouTube and were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. The data provided an insight into the cyberculture of powerlifting, and the negotiation of space, or lack thereof, for Mary Gregory within this physical culture. Five themes of were generated, including invalidation of gender identity, dehumanization, infliction of derogatory and crude language, accusations of cheating, and being compared to cisgender athletes without nuance. The study highlights the presence of significant vitriol across virtual platforms directed at Mary Gregory and the underlying presence of negative gender-based violence again trans* (GBV-T) discourse. This case provides examples of virtual gender-based violence and transphobia in sport, a lack of readiness to accept trans athletes, and concerns for the safety of trans* athletes in sporting spaces.
Despite a series of high-profile media reports of sexual abuse in sport over the past few years, little research has been done to explore the scope of the problem in the United States. The current article reports on prevalence of child sexual assault in elite athletes in the United States. Using a retrospective web survey, adults answered questions on their experiences in sport. Of the 473 elite athletes surveyed, 3.8% (n = 18) reported being sexual assaulted as a minor in the sporting context. Of those reporting assault, most (61%) reported being abused by an adult authority figure (usually a coach) and 44% reported being assaulted by a peer. Abused athletes were significantly more likely to report having been diagnosed with a mental disorder (Fisher’s exact test; p < .001). The findings can be utilized to improve prevention and child protection measures and other safeguarding initiatives in sport.
The issue of sexual abuse and harassment illustrates the difficulty of reporting wrongdoings in sport and the impact of omerta on the wellbeing of athletes. Experience demonstrates that reporting abuse, or any wrongdoing, within its own hierarchy presents a difficult and risky choice. It involves potentially conflicting values (loyalty, ethics and morality) and a cognitive dissonance between the rhetoric of the organization leadership, and the reality faced by individual actors. This chapter presents the actual whistle blowing conditions through the inside view of an experienced sport actor and through examples in one national sporting context (Germany). It will then synthesize the emerging literature and knowledge on the sport specificities which can inhibit reporting behaviour: in particular, the weak power position of athletes, intense organisational loyalties and complex interpersonal and contextual variables. It will then present several steps to ensure that safe, reliable and trustworthy reporting options are provided within the sport system and that whistle blowing is promoted as an individual right for athletes who are witnesses or victims of physical and moral hazards.
Initiatives to safeguard athletes from interpersonal violence (IV) are rapidly growing. In Belgium, knowledge on the magnitude of IV in sport is based on one retrospective prevalence study from 2016 ( n = 2.043 adults), involving those who had participated in organized sport for up to 18 years. Data on victimization rates in current youth sport populations are lacking. This study aimed to investigate the magnitude of IV in a sample of 769 athletes (aged between 13 and 21), using the Violence Towards Athletes Questionnaire (VTAQ). All types of IV were prevalent in this sample, ranging from 27% (sexual violence) to 79% (psychological violence and neglect). Boys reported significantly more physical violence, while girls reported significantly more sexual violence. IV perpetrated by peer athletes was reported to the same degree as IV perpetrated by a coach (70%), while IV perpetrated by a parent in the context of sport was somewhat less common, but still prevalent (48%). These findings, including factors associated with elevated exposure rates, can serve as a baseline measurement to monitor and evaluate current and future safeguarding interventions in Belgian sport.
While the issue of violence against children in sport reached societal concern worldwide, valid measurement tools are lacking. This study aims to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Dutch Violence Towards Athletes Questionnaire (VTAQ), a self-report instrument, surveying experiences with violence in youth sport. A total of 769 Belgian young athletes were recruited for this study. Exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) showed excellent model fits and yielded the same latent factors in the athlete and parent subscales as in the original study. However, our analysis revealed an additional factor in the coach subscale, . This factor, consisting of both physical and psychological harmful behaviors relating to performance-enhancing purposes, was named ‘instrumental’ violence. The emergence of an extra dimension of sport specific interpersonal violence redirects us towards a more extensive study of instrumental types of violence in relation to sports culture, competition level and training load in young athletes.
The purpose of this article is to foster debate and discussion around the developing sport match official research area. To that end the literature in this field is examined and discussed with gaps in the research identified and explored. Areas of future research are suggested as pertinent areas for scholars to focus upon, with mental health, online abuse, gender studies and investigations into the treatment and support for young people who officiate particularly important. It is the intention of this commentary to encourage academics from sport research fields that have not traditionally considered match officials as an area of interest, and to motivate those from disciplines outside sport related enquiry to consider adapting and applying methods to this unique population, in order to continue the development of scholarly activity and collaboration in this rapidly evolving subject area.
This study assessed the prevalence of maltreatment experienced by Canadian National Team athletes. In total, 995 athletes participated in this study, including current athletes and athletes who had retired in the past 10 years. An anonymous online survey was administered, consisting of questions about experiences of psychological, physical, and sexual harm, and neglect, as well as questions about identity characteristics, when the harm was experienced, and who perpetrated the harm. Neglect and psychological harm were most frequently reported, followed by sexual harm and physical harm. Female athletes reported significantly more experiences of all forms of harm. Retired athletes reported significantly more neglect and physical harm. Athletes reportedly experienced more harmful behaviors during their time on the national team than before joining a national team. Coaches were the most common perpetrators of all harms except for sexual harm, which was most frequently perpetrated by peers. This study highlighted the prevalence with which Canadian National Team athletes reportedly experience harmful behaviors in sport, suggesting the need for preventative and intervention initiatives.